Compilation of Subjective Answering Language for History in the College Entrance Examination
Note: The following content is only to provide standardized subject language. When answering questions, it is necessary to combine materials and analyze specific issues specifically, rather than rigidly applying formulas.
1. Causes and Background
1. Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period
Major social changes; the feudal system and clan system were destroyed; various states implemented reforms, and centralization gradually established; feudal lords competed for dominance; social turmoil; the emergence of iron tools and ox plowing; the disintegration of the well-field system and the establishment of private land ownership; the rise of a new landlord class; the hundred schools of thought contended; the establishment of private schools; the shift from learning in government to learning among the people; the rise of the scholar class.
2. Qin and Han Dynasties
National unification; political stability; the establishment of a despotic centralization system; the county system replaced bloodline politics with bureaucratic politics; the initial development of feudal economy; smallholder economy dominated; the state implemented policies favoring agriculture and suppressing commerce; Legalist thought dominated during the Qin Dynasty; at the beginning of the Han Dynasty, “the study of Huang-Lao” was promoted, “suppressing a hundred schools and respecting Confucianism,” establishing the mainstream position of Confucianism; the Silk Road was opened, and exchanges between China and foreign countries developed.
3. Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties
National division, frequent changes of regime; northern wars, relatively stable in the south; the development of Jiangnan; Buddhism and Taoism flourished, impacting Confucian thought while the three thoughts continuously integrated; the reforms of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei led to a trend of ethnic integration in the north.
4. Sui and Tang Dynasties
National unification, strong national power; the despotic centralization system was further improved; the three provinces and six ministries system and the imperial examination system were established; the economic focus shifted southward, with the south beginning to surpass the north; after the mid-Tang period, the policy of favoring agriculture and suppressing commerce was relaxed; cultural and ideological inclusiveness, the integration of the three teachings; the government implemented enlightened ethnic policies, further developing the unified multi-ethnic state; openness to the outside world, frequent economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.
5. Song and Yuan Dynasties
From division to unification; the development of the despotic centralization system; strengthened ethnic integration; the development of commodity economy, breaking the boundaries of markets, the rise of the bourgeoisie; the economic focus shifted southward; overseas trade flourished, and exchanges between China and foreign countries were frequent; Confucian thought developed into Neo-Confucianism and established its dominant position in the ideological sphere; leading in science and technology.
6. Ming and Qing Dynasties
The despotic centralization system reached its peak; national unification, political stability; the development of commodity economy; the emergence of capitalist sprouts; smallholder economy still dominated; Neo-Confucianism held a dominant position, progressive thoughts emerged; the imperial examination system was rigid, and cultural thought was repressive; early Western learning began to flow into China, and Western technology was introduced; rapid population growth, prominent land and population conflicts; large-scale land reclamation, environmental destruction; policies favoring agriculture and suppressing commerce, maritime prohibitions, and isolationist policies.
7. Late Qing and Republic of China Period
Invasion by great powers deepened the national crisis; China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society; various social classes in China sought to save the nation; after the Opium War, the natural economy began to disintegrate; the Self-Strengthening Movement initiated the modernization process; national capitalism emerged and developed; Western learning flowed into China, and Western enlightenment thought was introduced; new-style education developed; under the impact of industrial civilization, changes occurred in Chinese social life; China transitioned from an agricultural civilization to an industrial civilization.
8. Early Years of New China
After the founding of New China, consolidating power and restoring the economy; transitioning from new democracy to socialism, politically “one constitution, three major systems”; economically, “one transformation and three reforms” laid the foundation for industrialization, established the socialist system and planned economy; in 1956, the “Double Hundred Policy” promoted the prosperity of thought and culture; diplomatically, “leaning to one side,” the Korean War broke out, and Sino-American relations broke down.
9. Reform and Opening-up Period
Democratic and legal system construction gradually improved; the planned economy system hindered economic development; the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee was convened; reform and opening-up; China’s economic development and comprehensive strength improved; deepening economic system reform; proposing a market economy system; liberating thoughts; enhancing China’s international status and influence; Deng Xiaoping Theory.
10. Ancient Greece and Rome Period
Maritime civilization, development of commodity economy, conflicts between commoners and aristocrats; ancient Greek democracy (direct democracy); small states with few people, independent and autonomous city-states; emphasis on city-state interests; Roman territorial expansion, gradual development and perfection of Roman law; the spirit of natural law; flourishing of thought and culture, emergence of humanistic spirit.
11. Early Modern West
The emergence and development of capitalist sprouts; the strengthening of the bourgeoisie; the prevalence of mercantilism; the opening of new trade routes and early colonial expansion; the Catholic Church and despotic monarchy hindered capitalist development; the English and American revolutions established representative democracy; the Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment promoted the development of humanism and rationalism, liberating thought and advancing natural sciences.
12. Two Industrial Revolutions Period
The two industrial revolutions transformed capitalist countries into industrial civilizations; the steam age and electrical age arrived; bourgeois revolutions and reforms, unification, and the gradual formation of party politics, the expansion and perfection of bourgeois representative democracy; capitalist powers intensified foreign aggression and expansion, forming a capitalist world market; the inherent contradictions of capitalism gradually exposed, leading to the birth of Marxism and the vigorous development of the socialist movement; the emergence of romanticism and (critical) realism.
13. During the Two World Wars
Uneven political and economic development in capitalist countries, two major military blocs confronted, World War I broke out; the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 established the world’s first socialist country, creating a model for socialist modernization; the Soviet Union established the Stalin model, achieving industrialization and rapid economic development; capitalist countries experienced economic crises, threatening democratic systems, and Roosevelt’s New Deal initiated a new model of state intervention in the economy; fascist forces in Germany, Italy, and Japan rose to power and expanded outward; Britain and France pursued appeasement policies, and the world faced the threat of war, establishing the anti-fascist alliance.
14. After World War II
The Yalta system was established; the Cold War began, and a bipolar confrontation pattern gradually formed; the US and the Soviet Union competed for hegemony; after the 1960s, a trend of multipolarity emerged; in 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, ending the Cold War, strengthening the trend of multipolarity, with peace and development becoming the theme of the era. The capitalist world economic system formed, and the world economy developed towards systematization and institutionalization; post-war capitalist countries adjusted their economies, strengthening state intervention, entering a “golden age”; in the 1970s, economic stagnation occurred, reducing state intervention; the Soviet Union underwent three reforms; the third technological revolution emerged and developed; economic globalization and regional grouping.
15. Reform-related
Social contradictions (class contradictions) sharpened; land annexation intensified; the government faced financial difficulties (crisis); economic and political crises; ethnic contradictions sharpened, and the national crisis deepened; the old system hindered economic and political development (e.g., feudal autocracy hindered capitalist development, planned economy hindered economic development, aristocratic monopoly of political power); emerging economies developed and new class forces strengthened (e.g., the development of commodity economy, the emergence of capitalist sprouts; the bourgeoisie and capitalist forces strengthened); advanced thoughts and cultures spread and promoted (e.g., enlightenment thought, Han culture); personal factors of rulers or reformers; other successful reform inspirations and motivations; the people’s calls and struggles; government pressure; direct causes (e.g., the Pope selling indulgences, World War I).
16. Diplomatic, military, and other categories
Changes in the international situation (e.g., peace and development becoming the theme of the era, the development of multipolarity); adjustments in government policies; historical development trends and directions, etc.; the country completed unification (e.g., the initial establishment of the country, Northern Wei unified the Yellow River basin, the establishment of New China); defending the new regime (e.g., Soviet Russia’s wartime communist policy); internal and external troubles; severe economic damage; military wars; threats to centralization or the emergence of ruling crises.
2. Impact Evaluation
1. Ancient Chinese Politics
Strengthening centralization, striking local forces; strengthening imperial power; maintaining feudal rule; preserving national unity, enriching the country and strengthening the military; alleviating social contradictions; stabilizing social order; improving administrative efficiency; expanding the ruling foundation; improving the quality of officials; breaking the aristocracy’s monopoly on power; promoting social fairness and justice; strengthening supervision and reducing corruption; promoting government reform.
2. Ancient Chinese Economy
Increasing national fiscal revenue; reducing the burden on farmers; suppressing land annexation; alleviating social contradictions; promoting the development of (economic) agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce (commodity economy); promoting overseas trade development; facilitating southern development; benefiting the rise of merchants and the emergence of bourgeois culture; strengthening regional connections; loosening personal dependency relationships; standardizing tenant relationships, motivating producers.
Changes in the tax system impact:Recognizing land ownership, establishing feudal land ownership; adjusting production relations, alleviating class contradictions; expanding national tax sources, increasing government revenue; increasing the burden on the people, becoming one of the reasons for peasant uprisings; laborers had considerable personal freedom, benefiting the development of handicrafts and commerce, promoting the emergence and development of capitalist sprouts.
3. Ancient Chinese Thought, Education, and Technology
Flourishing of thought and culture; Confucian thought established as the ruling ideology; promoting new developments in Confucian thought; facilitating the exchange and dissemination of thought and culture; maintaining national unity and feudal rule; constraining people’s thoughts; stifling subjective desires (human nature); promoting the development of education; emphasizing social responsibility and historical mission, beneficial for shaping the character of the Chinese nation; educating society, improving quality, standardizing behavior; cultivating high-quality talents; promoting educational development, breaking the identity restrictions of learners; impacting the ruling position of Confucian thought; serving agriculture, promoting agricultural development; facilitating the exchange of scientific and cultural knowledge; Eastern learning flowing to the West, promoting the development of Western capitalism.
4. Modern Chinese Politics
The national crisis deepened, and China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society; various social classes in China sought to save the nation, rescuing the national crisis: overthrowing (impacting) the monarchical autocracy (the Qing Dynasty’s) rule; the Hundred Days’ Reform and the Xinhai Revolution learned from Western democratic systems, promoting democratization and legal development: the establishment of the Republic of China, promulgation of the “Provisional Constitution,” establishing a democratic republican system; spreading the concept of democracy and republicanism; the Northern Expedition basically overthrew the rule of the warlords.
5. Modern Chinese Economy
The smallholder economy gradually disintegrated, and China became a commodity market and raw material source for great powers, changing the economic structure; establishing modern industry promoted the modernization process and the development of modern cities; facilitating the transformation of modern society from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization; promoting the development of national industry, strengthening the bourgeoisie; promoting the democratization of politics; competing with foreign enterprises, resisting foreign economic aggression to a certain extent; the establishment and development of modern industry led to environmental destruction; under the impact of Western industrial civilization, promoting changes in customs and social appearance; the use of railways and steamships promoted the development of transportation.
6. Modern Chinese Thought, Culture, and Education
The reform movement and the New Culture Movement promoted the rationalization and scientific development of Chinese thought; the bourgeois anti-feudal thought liberation movement; impacting traditional ethics and shaking the ruling position of Confucian thought; the reform movement and the Three People’s Principles promoted the occurrence of the Hundred Days’ Reform and the Xinhai Revolution; the complete Westernization and total denial of traditional culture, on one hand, promoted the liberation of thought and the dissemination of Western thought, promoting the spread of Marxism and the occurrence of the May Fourth Movement, on the other hand, led to historical nihilism and a rupture in traditional culture; the ancient reform reflected the weakness and compromise of the bourgeoisie; Mao Zedong Thought (the theory of the peasant-led revolution) pointed the direction for the Chinese revolution, leading to the victory of the New Democratic Revolution; promoting the transition from traditional education to modern education, cultivating new talents; introducing advanced Western technology and thought; educating the public to bear social responsibility and explore ways to save the nation.
7. Modern Chinese Politics, Economy, and Culture
Consolidating the new national regime; improving the construction of the national democratic legal system; the one-sided policy at the beginning of the founding of the country broke the US blockade and isolation of China, maintaining national independence and sovereignty; land reform established peasant land ownership, motivating farmers’ production enthusiasm, promoting agricultural development; the First Five-Year Plan initially established an independent industrial system, forming a reasonable industrial layout; the three major transformations established the socialist system and planned economy; the household contract responsibility system motivated farmers’ production enthusiasm, promoting agricultural development and improving farmers’ living standards; township enterprises invigorated the rural economy, increasing farmers’ income and promoting urbanization; state-owned enterprise reform expanded enterprise autonomy, enhancing enterprise vitality, establishing a modern enterprise system, promoting national economic development; the market economy system liberated thoughts, accelerating the reform and opening-up process; opening up to the outside world strengthened foreign connections, introducing advanced technology, promoting economic development and enhancing comprehensive national strength; special economic zones played a demonstration role, providing valuable experiences and lessons; Deng Xiaoping Theory liberated thoughts, addressing the essence of socialism, pointing the way for building socialism with Chinese characteristics; the principle of “one country, two systems” maintained national unity.
8. Ancient Western Politics, Economy, and Thought
Ancient Greece (Athens) pioneered democracy, establishing parliamentary systems, term limits, proportional representation, and other democratic operations, promoting the development of commerce, navigation, and the flourishing of thought and culture; it was not democracy in the modern sense, but democracy for a minority (male citizens), easily leading to the abuse of power; Roman law maintained the rule of the Roman Empire, stabilizing social order, alleviating social contradictions, providing a reference for later bourgeois legislation, fundamentally maintaining the interests of slave-owning aristocrats.
9. Modern Western Politics
The “Glorious Revolution” marked the end of the English bourgeois revolution; the Bill of Rights was promulgated, establishing a constitutional monarchy in England, limiting royal power, establishing parliamentary sovereignty, transitioning England from rule by man to rule by law; the 1832 parliamentary reform promoted the development of representative democracy; the American War of Independence freed itself from British colonial rule, promulgating the 1787 Constitution, establishing a federal democratic republic, promoting capitalist development, the world’s first written constitution, providing a reference for other countries, but retaining the institution of slavery and the prevalence of states’ rights. The French Revolution overthrew autocratic rule, and the 1875 Constitution established a parliamentary democratic republic, promoting capitalist development, but with significant limitations; the Paris Commune was the first great attempt by the proletariat to establish power (the spirit of revolutionary innovation); Germany completed unification through dynastic wars, promulgating the 1871 Constitution, establishing a constitutional monarchy, maintaining national unity, promoting capitalist development, but retaining elements of despotism and militarism, becoming the source of World War I and II.
10. Modern Western Economy
Western countries transitioned from agricultural civilization to modern industrial civilization; the world market began, initially formed, and ultimately formed; Western Europe rose, and the trade center shifted; the opening of new trade routes and colonial expansion provided the initial capital accumulation and broad market for capitalist development; humanity transitioned from isolated and scattered to a whole world; promoting the development of capitalism; humanity entered the “steam age” and “electrical age”; promoting the development of transportation and urbanization; the mode of invasion shifted from commodity export to capital export; the opposition between industrial bourgeoisie and proletariat emerged; environmental pollution and ecological crises.
11. Modern Western Science, Thought, and Culture
The Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment were movements for the liberation of bourgeois thought; impacting the ideological dominance of the Catholic Church; spreading and developing humanism, enlightenment thought, and rational spirit; providing ideological basis for bourgeois revolutions; promoting bourgeois revolutions and national liberation movements in Asia; the development of natural sciences promoted the occurrence of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution; the Enlightenment, bourgeois revolutions, and the Industrial Revolution gave rise to romanticism and critical realism in literature and art; the birth of Marxism promoted the vigorous development of the international workers’ movement.
12. Modern Western (Socialist Countries) Politics and Economy
The October Revolution established the world’s first socialist country, creating a new model for socialist modernization, providing a reference for other countries; the wartime communist policy consolidated the new Soviet regime, but was not the correct path to transition to socialism; the New Economic Policy developed the economy in the form of state capitalism, restoring and developing the economy, finding a correct path to socialism; the Stalin system developed heavy industry unilaterally, rapidly achieving industrialization, laying the foundation for the anti-fascist war, but leading to imbalances in agricultural, light, and heavy industries, slow improvement in people’s lives, suppressing local and enterprise enthusiasm, later hindering the development of the Soviet Union; the reforms of Khrushchev and Brezhnev achieved certain results but did not break through the Stalin model, ultimately failing; Gorbachev’s reforms failed, leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union, ending the bipolar confrontation pattern, and strengthening the trend of multipolarity.
13. Modern Western (Capitalist Countries) Politics
The Cold War (bipolar confrontation), the US and the Soviet Union competed for world hegemony, interfering in other countries’ internal affairs, endangering world peace; the two powers constrained each other, leading to relative peace; Europe moved towards unification, Japan’s economy rose, the non-aligned movement emerged, and China’s national strength increased, developing a trend of multipolarity, impacting the bipolar pattern; the collapse of the Soviet Union ended the bipolar pattern, strengthening the trend of multipolarity; coexistence of relaxation and turmoil.
14. Modern Western (Capitalist Countries) Economy
The Great Depression of the 1930s severely damaged the economies of capitalist countries, posing a significant threat to democratic systems, leading to the rise of fascist forces in Germany and Japan; Roosevelt’s New Deal temporarily lifted the US out of the economic crisis, restoring and developing the economy, alleviating social contradictions, initiating a new model of state intervention in the economy; the welfare system ensured the living standards of low-income groups, alleviating social contradictions, stimulating consumption, but reducing people’s work enthusiasm, increasing government fiscal deficits; “people’s capitalism” expanded funding sources, and the “managerial revolution” improved management levels, promoting the growth of the middle class; the establishment of the economic system of capitalist countries after World War II led the post-war economy towards systematization and institutionalization, aligning with the trend of economic globalization, promoting world economic development; economic globalization facilitated the optimal allocation of world resources, improving productivity, closely linking different parts of the world, and facilitating people’s lives; the wealth gap between developing and developed countries widened, increasing the risks of the world economy, environmental pollution, ecological crises, and conflicts of civilization and values.
15. Modern Western (Capitalist Countries) Thought and Technology
The Great Depression impacted laissez-faire thought, and Keynesianism gained attention; in the 1970s, reduced state intervention diminished the vitality of economic development; the theory of relativity and quantum theory promoted the revolution in modern physics, leading humanity into the knowledge economy era in the 1990s.
3. Insights and Enlightenment
1. Reform-related
Reform is the driving force of social development; reform is a requirement and product of historical development; reform may involve the interests of certain individuals or groups and face opposition, making it arduous and complex, not always smooth, requiring confidence in success; reform measures must be effective, align with the trends of the times, follow the laws of social development, and focus on people’s livelihoods, with appropriate personnel selection; reformers must have foresight and political courage; there is no fixed model for reform, specific issues must be analyzed specifically, learning from past reform experiences, and following a path that suits national conditions; it is necessary to consider the interests of all classes and reduce resistance to reform.
2. Diplomatic-related
Safeguarding national interests; maintaining national sovereignty; strengthening cooperation between countries, striving for win-win outcomes; influenced by social systems, ideologies, domestic and international situations, and value concepts; opposing hegemonism and power politics, maintaining world peace and security; promoting the development of multipolarity; facilitating the development of China’s diplomatic endeavors; beneficial for establishing a new international order; strengthening awareness of maritime territory and sovereignty (maritime power).
3. Education and Official Selection
Emphasizing the importance of school education; talent cultivation and selection should focus on professional knowledge and skills; official selection should emphasize “both virtue and talent”; breaking the limitations of the educated (official selection) group, expanding the scope and sources, promoting educational equity; adapting to the requirements of the times, cultivating new-style talents; promoting educational transformation, modernization of education; learning from traditional education and Western educational experiences to promote the development of Chinese education.
4. Democracy and Rule of Law
Democratization and rule of law are the trends and currents of historical development; the establishment and perfection of democracy and rule of law is a long and tortuous process, not always smooth; different civilizations can learn from and borrow from each other, and innovation should be embraced; safeguarding the interests of the people and promoting the development of democracy and rule of law; the construction of democracy and rule of law should start from the actual situation of the country, combining with national conditions; it is necessary to adhere to the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party of China.
5. Others
Political changes provide guarantees for economic development; economic development will also promote political changes; literature and art reflect (historical) social realities, and social realities (historical) also provide materials and sources for literary and artistic creation; classic theories guide practice; scientific practice perfects and develops theories.
4. Characteristics and Trends
1. Characteristics of Reform
Including politics, economy, thought, education, and other aspects, measures are relatively comprehensive; promulgation of laws and decrees; top-down implementation; considering the interests of all classes; wide coverage; either too hasty or gradual; conducted under the impact of industrial civilization and foreign invasion; retaining many feudal remnants, incomplete reforms; lacking or having a mass base.
2. Characteristics of Democracy and Rule of Law
Democratic scope gradually expands; democracy and rule of law increasingly improve; popular sovereignty, alternating governance; direct democracy under small states with few people, democracy for a minority, democracy for male citizens; regulating human behavior, mediating social contradictions; bourgeois democracy; breaking through the limitations of direct democracy, establishing representative systems; abolishing property qualifications; humanistic spirit; the broadness and authenticity of the democratic rights enjoyed by the masses, guaranteed by law and systems; governing the country by law; the establishment and perfection of democracy is a long and tortuous process; ancient laws; influenced by Confucian thought (clan concepts), reducing penalties.
3. Welfare Systems, Social Relief Guarantees, and Disaster Relief, Livelihoods
Wide coverage; low-income groups benefit significantly; with legislative and institutional guarantees; government attention; reflecting the socialization of distribution; combining government disaster relief and self-rescue by the people; established early; gradually moving towards perfection; strict supervision and oversight; promotion by public opinion and media, etc.
4. Environmental Protection
Emphasizing public opinion promotion and supervision; combining government and civil society; complete systems; formulating laws and regulations as guarantees; learning from historical lessons; borrowing from other countries’ experiences; combining prevention and governance; active participation and cooperation of the public; emphasizing education and guidance.
5. Economic Development
Strong support and promotion from the state; formulating corresponding policies and laws (e.g., favoring agriculture and suppressing commerce, attracting investment, special economic policies); establishing corresponding management departments and institutions (e.g., Maritime Trade Office, Prime Minister’s Office, Development and Reform Commission); gradual progress from rural to urban, from east to west, from local to national; combining planning and market; learning from the experiences of Western countries; regional grouping, globalization, systematization, institutionalization; included in national development plans, serving national industrialization, independently developing; long duration, wide scope, and great destructiveness of economic crises; inflation and deflation.
6. Economic Development Characteristics of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
Developed agricultural economy, meticulous farming, driven by tax reforms, and government policies; introduction and promotion of high-yield crops, commercialization of agricultural products, and large-scale planting of cash crops; the rise of commerce and industry in towns; silver became the main circulating currency; monetary economy dominated; regional merchant groups emerged; unbalanced development, regional and professional characteristics of economic development; new economic factors emerged (capitalist sprouts).
7. Characteristics of Ancient Chinese Cities
Flourishing cities, large scale, orderly layout; standardized market system; political and military functions; breaking the boundaries of markets, enhancing the economic functions of cities, commercial towns, and specialized towns.
8. Characteristics of Science and Industrial Revolution
Ancient Chinese technology focused on summarizing traditional experiences; primarily practical; often related to agriculture; modern Western technology emphasized experimental science, guided by scientific theories, focusing on rationality; close integration of science and technology; light (heavy) industry predominated; some countries experienced overlapping industrial revolutions, etc.; science and technology are the primary productive forces.
9. Trend Terminology
Imperial power gradually strengthened, while the power of the state gradually weakened; local power weakened, centralization strengthened; from bloodline politics to bureaucratic politics; the official selection system gradually improved; from the contention of a hundred schools to the dominance of Confucianism; from state-run to private; from openness to isolation; from learning Western technology to learning capitalist democratic systems and cultural thoughts; from shallow to deep, from surface to essence; from the southeast coast to the inland; from rural to urban; from light industry to heavy industry; the market economy system gradually established; the government’s role shifted from management to service; from appointment to election; from autocracy to democracy, from rule by man to rule by law; the gradual improvement of democracy and rule of law; from bipolar confrontation to strengthening trends of multipolarity; from isolation to close connections worldwide, strengthening globalization trends; from laissez-faire to state intervention.