The structure of local chronicles refers to the composition method of various components of the chronicles, that is, the arrangement method of the chronicles. The function of the structure of local chronicles is to arrange various contents in certain positions, making the whole book an organic whole with an orderly arrangement and reasonable layout. The structure of local chronicles includes at least three basic elements: category settings, format types, and compilation methods.
1. Structure and Format of Old Chronicles
(1) Category Settings
In the history of the development of local chronicles in China, the category settings of chronicles have undergone a series of changes. Old chronicles have approximately experienced the evolution process of categorization into books and classification by categories.
1. Categorization into Books
According to the “General Catalog of the Complete Library in Four Sections· Geography Section Preface”, it states: “In ancient geographical records, they only recorded the boundaries, mountains and rivers, customs, and products, which cannot be seen today.” Most of the geographical records before the Han and Wei dynasties have been lost, and their formats are no longer traceable. Fan Ye, in the “Book of the Later Han: Commentary on the Western Regions”, compared the situation of the Western Regions described by Gan Ying with the chronicles of the Han and Wei dynasties. He believed that the situation described by Gan Ying only involved the aspect of “Buddhism and Taoism,” which was not set in the geographical records of the Han and Wei dynasties; other aspects were completely covered by the geographical records of the Han and Wei dynasties. These aspects can be summarized as customs, products, mountains, climate, transportation, and dangers, etc. However, this is merely our summary today and may not represent the actual category settings of the geographical records of the Han and Wei dynasties. Fan Ye likely proposed these aspects for convenience in discussion, summarizing them from the geographical records of the Han and Wei dynasties.
After the Han and Wei dynasties and before the Song dynasties, most chronicles were compiled categorically, forming separate books. At the same time, comprehensive chronicles that gathered various formats also existed. The “Book of Sui: Preface to the Classics and Writings” records: “During the Jin dynasty, Zhi Qian relied on the ‘Tribute of Yu’ and ‘Rites of Zhou’ to create the ‘Essentials of the Geography of the Capital,’ which detailed the boundaries, feudal lands, enterprises, countries, mountains, springs, towns, pavilions, cities, roads, fields, products, customs, and the old good deeds of sages, totaling 170 volumes, which are now lost.” Since this book had already been lost in the Tang dynasty, it is difficult to determine whether it was structured by categories. However, from the above records, it can be seen that the book not only recorded geography but also recorded products, customs, and figures, making it a comprehensive chronicle.
The format of chronicles has been continuously developed. By the Tang dynasty, chronicles that were categorized began to appear, although in small numbers, and had not formed a common trend. During the reign of Emperor Xuan of the Tang dynasty, Wei Ao compiled the “Essentials of the Names of Mountains and Rivers of Various Roads.” This book is a national chronicle, and from the fragmented version, it can be seen that it is generally arranged in the order of administrative divisions, while some parts are arranged by categories, and it has not yet merged similar items, so it cannot be considered a categorized structure. During the Xiantong period of the Tang dynasty, Fan Chuo wrote the “Book of the Barbarians,” which had significant differences from the “Essentials of the Names of Mountains and Rivers of Various Roads.” This book has been lost, but during the Qianlong period of the Qing dynasty, it was recompiled from the “Yongle Encyclopedia,” and of course, it is no longer in its original form, but it is still helpful for understanding the format of this book today. The compiled version records: the routes within Yunnan, mountains and rivers, the Six Zhao, names, towns in Yunnan, products within Yunnan, customs of the barbarians, teachings of the southern barbarians, and the boundaries of the southern barbarians connecting various barbarian countries. The “Yunnan Tongzhi” of the Wanli period records:“The ‘Book of the Barbarians’ consists of ten volumes, written by Fan Chuo during the Xiantong period, covering the routes of the southern barbarians, mountains, town names, various barbarian ethnicities, customs, and products, compiled into ten categories.” The categories recorded here are basically similar to those in the collections of the Qing dynasty, and it is also clearly stated: “compiled into ten categories.” This shows that the “Book of the Barbarians” is one of the earliest known comprehensive chronicles with categorized formats.
2. Classification by Categories
Classification by categories means that in a comprehensive chronicle, a structure is adopted where events are grouped by categories, and several categories are set up according to different events. Zhang Guogan, in “Research on Ancient Local Chronicles in China,” said: “The format of local chronicles began to take shape during the Zhao and Song dynasties. In general, maps, boundaries, mountains, famous sites, establishments, officials, taxes, products, local customs, figures, techniques, inscriptions, arts and literature, and disasters are all compiled into one volume.” This indicates that the structure of classifying by categories and compiling into one volume became popular after the Zhao and Song dynasties.
For example, the “Changan Chronicle” by Song Minqiu from the Northern Song dynasty consists of 20 volumes, with the first 10 volumes belonging to the classification by categories, although the number of categories contained in each volume varies. The later volumes are recorded by counties. Zhou Zhongfu, in the “Postscript of the Changan Chronicle,” stated: “In terms of the administration of the prefectures and counties, the duties of officials, rivers and channels, boundaries, customs, products, palaces, streets, and so on, everything is clearly organized, with a clear structure, comprehensive yet not cluttered.” This indicates that the counties were also recorded by categories, but they were not unified categories for the entire book.
For example, the “Wujun Geography” by Zhu Changwen from the Northern Song dynasty is divided into 28 categories, and there are no traces of being arranged by state or county, completely following the structure of categorizing events.
It can be seen that the structure of a chronicle with numerous categorized formats gradually formed during the Northern Song dynasty. After the Southern Song dynasty, until the Republic of China, the vast majority of chronicles set various categories. The stages of the evolution of the above-mentioned chronicle structures are not completely separated. Often, the previous stage has already had the seeds of the next stage, and the next stage still retains the remnants of the previous stage.
(2) Types of Formats
Format refers to the structural method of a chronicle. Local chronicles have formed various structural formats during their long development process, which can be roughly divided into parallel formats, outline formats, biographical formats, three-book formats, three-treasure formats, chapter formats, as well as chronological formats and annal formats.
1. Parallel Format
Parallel format, also known as flat outline format or non-outlined parallel format, refers to a structural method where various categories are listed parallel and do not belong to each other in the chronicles. This structure was relatively common before the Song and Yuan dynasties and remained popular until the mid-Qing dynasty. The “Wujun Geography” by Zhu Changwen from the Northern Song dynasty consists of three volumes, with 28 parallel categories set up. This is one of the earlier chronicles to adopt this structural method. The “Wujun Chronicle” by Fan Chengda from the Southern Song dynasty consists of 50 volumes, with 39 categories set up, also a typical parallel format. Works like “Yunji Chronicle” by Yang Qian and “Wuxing Chronicle” by Tan Yao, as well as the “Kunshan Chronicle” from the Yuan dynasty, also adopted this structural method.
In the 16th year of the Yongle reign (1418), the “General Principles for Compiling Chronicles” was issued, which stipulated 24 parallel categories, including administrative changes, divisions, boundaries, cities, towns, mountains and rivers, customs, situations, households, schools, military posts, temples, bridges, officials, figures, immortals, miscellaneous writings, poems, and literature. During the Shunzhi period of the Qing dynasty, Jia Hanfu revised the “Henan Tongzhi” into 50 volumes, divided into maps and examinations, administrative changes, boundaries, mountains and rivers, customs, cities, river defenses, feudalism, households, taxes, products, officials, public offices, schools, elections, sacrifices, tombs, ancient sites, emperors, famous officials, figures, filial piety, notable women, wanderers, recluses, immortals, techniques, arts and literature, and miscellaneous discussions. Later, Jia Hanfu revised the “Shaanxi Tongzhi” and also adopted the structure of the “Henan Tongzhi.” In the “Cangzhou Chronicle: General Principles,” it states: “During the Kangxi period, the academy was opened to compile the ‘History of Ming,’ and it was specifically ordered that governors and officials compile provincial chronicles, all following Jia Zhongcheng’s Qin and Yu chronicles as standards. During the Yongzheng period, the ‘Unified Chronicle’ had not been completed for a long time, and again ordered each province to compile general chronicles, still according to the previous format, strictly adhering to the orders and laws.” The parallel format became fashionable. In the ninth year of Yongzheng (1731), the “Zhejiang Tongzhi,” compiled under the supervision of Governor Li Wei, had as many as 54 detailed categories set up in parallel. In the 29th year of Kangxi (1690), the “Henan Governor’s Notice for Compiling Chronicles” issued 30 categories, divided into general maps, administrative changes, astronomy, boundaries, establishments, river defenses, villages, towns, public offices, bridges, granaries, social studies, streets, neighborhoods, mountains and rivers, customs, tombs, temples, taxes, officials, figures, wanderers, filial piety, notable women, recluses, techniques, arts and literature, disaster details, and miscellaneous writings. Due to official advocacy, chronicles of this structure in the Ming and Qing dynasties also flourished for a time. For example, the “Shandong Tongzhi” by Jiajing and the “Xiaoshan Chronicle” by Qianlong both adopted this structure. In the Republic of China period, some chronicles also adopted the parallel format for their structural arrangement, such as Bai Yongzhen’s “Hailong County Chronicle,” etc.
This structural format has the advantages of clear categories, easy to read, convenient for compilation, and easy to retrieve; its disadvantages are that it lacks an overall structure, is loose, and is somewhat fragmented. Dai Zhen’s “Fenzhou Chronicle” adopted this structural method, and Qu Xuanying commented in “Draft of Research on Local Chronicles”:“The whole book’s context relies on the chapters; now the names are listed without any overarching structure, resembling a ledger, which is far from the elegance of a written work.” Because of this, after the Qianjia period, the number of chronicles of this format gradually decreased.
2. Outline Format
Outline format, also known as the category format or the divided outline format, refers to a structural method where several outlines are established first, and each outline is then divided into numerous subcategories. The outline format has the following forms:
(1) Categorizing by Events
This type first appeared in the Song dynasty. The “Chicheng Chronicle” of the Southern Song dynasty, compiled during the Jiadong period, is one of the earlier chronicles to adopt this structural method. The entire book sets up 15 categories, including geography, public offices, official rankings, land and taxation, administrative duties, military defenses, mountains and rivers, temples, ancestral halls, figures, local customs, tombs, records, and corrections, most of which have subdivisions.
The “Xianxi Chronicle” of the Southern Song dynasty, the “Revised Qin Chuan Chronicle” of the Yuan dynasty, and the “Songjiang Prefecture Chronicle” of the Ming dynasty, as well as the “Hejian Prefecture Chronicle” and the “Yanling Prefecture Chronicle” during the Jiajing period, all belong to this type. By the Qing dynasty, this type of chronicles became even more common. For example, the “Wen’an Chronicle” by Cui Qiyuan in the Kangxi period, the “Guancheng Chronicle” by Qianxia, the “Taiwan Prefecture Chronicle” by Gao Zhuan, and the “Xining Prefecture Chronicle” by Yang Yinglu, etc., all adopted this type.
All the above chronicles are structured with major categories as outlines and minor categories as subjects. Many chronicles from the Ming, Qing, and Republic of China periods adopted this type. There are also structures that categorize by events and use regions as subjects. For example, the “Zhejiang Tongzhi” from the Qianlong period is divided into 54 categories, with each category further divided into prefectures and counties, arranged neatly and in an orderly manner.
(2) Categorizing by Administrative Regions
This structural format is mostly used for national chronicles or provincial chronicles. Because the jurisdiction is large, it needs to be structured by administrative regions, then either categorized or listed by categories. This structure can be traced back to the “Geographical Records” in the “Book of Han.” It is based on the commandery and states, sequentially recording households, populations, subordinate counties, and official offices. As a component of the official history, its format has a profound impact on future national chronicles. The “Yuanhe County Chronicle” of the Tang dynasty, the “Taiping Universal Geography” of the Song dynasty, and the “Nine Regions of Yuanfeng” are all inheritances and developments of the format in the “Geographical Records” of the “Book of Han,” structured by administrative regions and then categorized. For example, the “Yuanhe County Chronicle” uses the ten provinces of that time as the outline, with the prefectures, states, and counties described in three levels, generally recording their changes, household numbers, boundaries, tributary goods, mountains, rivers, ancient sites, etc., which are much richer than the records in the “Geographical Records” of the “Book of Han.”
The “Yudi Jisheng” by Wang Xiangzhi in the Song dynasty took a further step compared to the above chronicles, as it used administrative regions as the outline and clearly set up subcategories. Qing scholar Qian Daxin stated in the “Shijia Zhai Yuxin Record”:“Each prefecture, state, army, and monitoring division is divided into twelve subcategories, namely the administrative changes of the prefectures and states, county changes, customs and geographical features, upper and lower scenic spots, ancient sites, officials, figures, immortals, inscriptions, poetry, and prose.”
During the Chenghua period of the Ming dynasty, when Wu Fu compiled the “Shaanxi Tongzhi,” the structural setup was also based on “prefectures, states, counties, garrisons, monasteries, and temples” as outlines, with categories listed below, similar to the example of the Unified Chronicle.
The “Daqing Unified Chronicle” format is that each province first establishes a unified section for a general description, along with maps and lists of affiliated prefectures and states, and then divides into categories such as boundaries, administrative changes, geographical features, officials, households, taxes, famous officials, etc., recording matters within the province; each prefecture and directly governed state lists subordinate counties, and then subdivides into categories such as boundaries, administrative changes, geographical features, customs, cities, schools, households, taxes, mountains, ancient sites, passes, bridges, tombs, temples, famous officials, figures, wanderers, notable women, immortals, products, etc. Structurally, the “Daqing Unified Chronicle” is more complex. It is divided into two levels, first using provinces as the outline, and then using the divisions, administrative changes, geographical features, etc., of that province as the subjects; then using prefectures and directly governed states as the outline, and the divisions, administrative changes, geographical features, customs, etc., of that jurisdiction as the subjects. This is a kind of overlapping outline format.
(3) Mixed Categorization by Events and Administrative Regions
In the arrangement of categories, some major categories are outlined by events, while others are outlined by administrative regions, comprehensively using the above two types to set up the structure of categories. This type of structure is relatively rare, only seen in chronicles from the Song and Ming dynasties. For example, the “Siming Geography” compiled by Zhang Jin in the fifth year of the Qianlong period (1169) is one of the earlier chronicles to adopt this structural format. In addition, chronicles like the “Xinan Chronicle” by Zhao Buhui and Luo Yuan from the Song dynasty, the “Baoqing Siming Chronicle” by Fang Wanli, and the “Yunnan Chronicle” by Zhou Jifeng from the Ming dynasty also adopt this structural type.
(4) Political Book Format
This format adopts the structure of historical records to compile chronicles. The structure of political book chronicles borrows and applies the format of historical records, focusing on practicality, and mainly records local political matters and regulations, dividing into outlines and categories, with six departments (or six sections) as the outline, and categorically describing. The political book format was first created in the Ming dynasty during the Hongzhi period by Zhou Ying and Huang Zhongyi in the “Xinghua Prefecture Chronicle.” In the structural setup of this chronicle,“the six categories of officials, households, rites, military, law, and engineering are established as the outline, summarizing their key points as the outline and narrating their matters as the subjects,” totaling 65 outlines and 257 subjects, with the household department being the most detailed. The “Zhangzhou Chronicle” during the Zhengde period is also divided into major categories of officials, households, rites, military, law, and engineering. Other political book formats in the Ming dynasty include the “Linwu Chronicle” by Jiajing and the “Canglang Collection” by Li Zuozhou. In the Qing dynasty, only Zhang Xuecheng’s proposed three-book history has classifications of officials, households, rites, military, law, and engineering.
(5) Two-Section Format
This type refers to a structure in which the chronicles are divided into two major categories, with each category further setting up the formats of various chronicles. The “Guangping Prefecture Chronicle” during the Jiajing period first created this format. This chronicle is divided into two sections: the longitudinal section includes the chronicles of the boundaries, counties, mountains, schools, and ancient sites; the transverse section includes the chronicles of official rankings, elections, official careers, virtuous deeds, notable women, and benefactions. The reason for such division, Chen Liu explained in the preface:“From the boundaries to ancient sites, all are the subjects of fixed quality; those listed are physical, hence the main aspect is static.” “From official rankings to customs, all are the subjects of dynamic movement; those examined are matters, hence the secondary aspect is dynamic.” Therefore, the longitudinal section comes first, followed by the transverse section, with the longitudinal section first and the transverse section second. The outline of the chronicles is said to represent the two aspects of yin and yang; one map represents the body of the supreme ultimate; three tables represent the three talents; twelve records represent the twelve periods. It is said that there are corresponding bodies of structure, and there are sequential orders of inheritance.
The outline format is clear in classification, with clear headings, and the outlines lead the subjects, making it easy to reflect the hierarchical relationships between things, with a rigorous structure and clear levels. As stated in the “Cangzhou Chronicle: General Principles”: “Chronicles have outlines and subjects, as the Book says, ‘If the net is on the outline, it will have lines and not be chaotic.’ If there is an outline without subjects, it will be scattered; if the subjects do not connect with the outlines, it will be chaotic.” It can be seen that the outline format is superior to the parallel format and thus has been widely promoted.
3. Biographical Format
Biographical format refers to the structure that imitates the biographical historical records, classifying them into sections, records, tables, and biographies mixed with examinations, records, genealogies, and summaries. Some categorize it as an outline format because the records are divided into detailed subjects.
This format is represented by the “Jiankang Chronicle” of Zhou Yinghe from the Southern Song dynasty, which first includes records, maps, tables, and chronicles, followed by ten chronicles. The “Nanjing Chronicle” by Zhang Xuan from the Yuan dynasty sets up geographical maps, Nanjing general records, Nanjing year tables, geographical records, mountain and river records, official records, tax records, local customs, schools, military defenses, ancestral records, ancient site records, and figure records, with the figure records further divided into genealogies and biographies. The two chronicles are quite similar and belong to the biographical format.
In the Ming to Qing dynasties, the number of chronicles using this format gradually increased. The “Zhou Cheng Chronicle” by Li Wenzhao in the Qianlong period, the “Chunhua County Chronicle” by Hong Liangji, and the “Dengfeng County Chronicle” also belong to this format. The biographical format chronicles, particularly the “Guangxi Chronicle” by Xie Qikun during the Jiaqing period, had the most significant influence. This chronicle is divided into five sections: regulations, tables, summaries, records, and biographies, with some sections further divided into several subjects. For example, the “summary” includes geographical records, mountains and rivers, passes, establishments, governance, previous matters, arts and literature, inscriptions, and notable sites. Each subject is further divided into sub-subjects based on the content. The meticulousness of its format and the rigor of its structure far exceed those of previous chronicles, earning much praise from scholars. Liang Qichao said: “Recognizing the compilation of chronicles as a major undertaking began with the introduction of the mountain system. Therefore, its chronicles serve as models for provincial chronicles; even with the broad knowledge of Yuan Yuntai, he dared not deviate even slightly, and there is no need to mention more.” The “Zhejiang Chronicle,” “Guangdong Chronicle,” and “Yunnan Chronicle” during the Jiaqing period, as well as some local chronicles, also followed the format of Xie Qikun’s “Guangxi Chronicle” with slight modifications, forming a trend.
The main reasons for the prevalence of the biographical format are that biographical historical records hold a very important position in the history of Chinese historiography, and compilers often wish to imitate its structure to make their compiled chronicles trend towards orthodox historical works; secondly, due to the advocacy and demonstration of renowned figures such as Zhou Yinghe and Xie Qikun, compilers have references for easy success; thirdly, this structural format has obvious advantages, as it not only possesses the same benefits as the outline format but also has the advantage of combining vertical and horizontal structures. The biography is vertical, the records are horizontal, and the tables combine both vertical and horizontal structures, making it more complete and coordinated. The major blocks of the structure of new chronicles actually evolved from the biographical format.
4. Three-Book Format
The three-book format is a type created by the Qing dynasty local chronicles scholar Zhang Xuecheng. In his article “On Establishing Three Books in Local Chronicles,” he stated:“To chronicle the literature of a region, one must establish the studies of three schools, and only then can one understand the intentions left by the ancients. Imitating the structure of the biographical historical records to create chronicles, imitating the structure of laws and regulations to create records, and imitating the structure of the “Wenxuan” and “Literary Garden” to create literary collections. The three books complement each other, and none can be omitted; when combined, they are even more indispensable.” He advocated that from the overall structure, a chronicle should be divided into three parts: records, historical anecdotes, and literary collections. The records are the main body of the three books, divided into four categories: chronicle, genealogy, examination, and biography. He stated: “The celebration of imperial grace should be recorded as a chronicle, the examinations and official rankings should be recorded as genealogies, the laws and regulations should be recorded as examinations, and the notable figures should be recorded as biographies.” The historical anecdotes refer to the regulations related to a region; the literary collections are a compilation of literature related to that region. The records represent the writing part of a chronicle, while the historical anecdotes and literary collections represent the data part of the chronicle.
Zhang Xuecheng’s “Yongqing County Chronicle” contains records: imperial records, grace records; tables: official tables, election tables, and genealogies; political strategies; and biographies: records of notable figures. The above belongs to the part of the three books in the chronicles. The books include official records, household records, ritual records, military records, legal records, and engineering records, belonging to the part of historical anecdotes in the three books. In addition, relevant poetry and prose about Yongqing are included, divided into categories such as discussions, verifications, arguments, poems, and inscriptions, which belong to the literary collections part of the three books. Zhang Xuecheng’s three-book format is represented by the “Hubei Chronicle,” but unfortunately, due to intervening events, it was not completed. Li Jinxing stated in “Current Discussions on Local Chronicles”: “Among the chronicles compiled by Zhang, only the last ‘Hubei Chronicle’ truly contains the three books, with 66 historical anecdotes; others like the ‘Hezhou Chronicle’ do not have historical anecdotes, but have literary collections; the ‘Yongqing County Chronicle’ also does not have separate historical anecdotes, but includes them in the six books of the person records; the ‘Bozhou Chronicle’ first created a book of historical anecdotes to be attached.”
After Zhang Xuecheng, there were not many chronicles that comprehensively adopted the three-book format. The entries of the “Qingping County Chronicle” during the Jiaqing period include records, tables, maps, books, and biographies. The entries of the “Lijin County Chronicle” during the Guangxu period include records, maps, tables, books, political strategies, biographies, and miscellaneous writings. Qu Xuanying commented in “Draft of Research on Local Chronicles” that these two chronicles mimic the format of the “Yongqing Chronicle.” However, measured by the three-book format, the records, maps, tables, biographies, and summaries belong to the records, and the “books” can also be counted as part of the historical anecdotes, while lacking literary collections, so at most, there are only two books, and not three books. This indicates that this format is not suitable for popularization.
In the Republic of China period, there were also a few chronicles that adopted the three-book format, but with slight modifications in the arrangement of entries. For example, when Zhang Senkai compiled the “Newly Revised Hechuan County Chronicle,” he divided it into maps, genealogies, historical records, biographies, and appendices, where the maps, biographies, and genealogies are parts of the records, while the literary collections were changed to literary records, and the historical anecdotes were changed to historical records. In addition, Li Taifen’s “Yangyuan County Chronicle,” Zhang Xinzhu’s “Boshan County Chronicle,” and Shu Xiaoxian’s “Linzi County Chronicle,” also adopted the three-book format.
5. Three-Treasure Format
The three-treasure format refers to the structural type of chronicles that are generally divided into three sections: land, people, and political affairs. The term three treasures comes from the “Mencius: Chapter of Heart and Mind”: “The three treasures of the feudal lords are land, people, and political affairs.” Therefore, those chronicles that divide into three sections of land, people, and political affairs are referred to as three-treasure format. Of course, it is not limited to three sections; those divided into four sections also belong to this format.
The three-treasure format originated from the “Yongjia Genealogy” by Cao Shuyuan in the Song dynasty, which divided into year genealogy, land genealogy, name genealogy, and people genealogy. The “Wenzhou Classics Chronicle” states:“Cao Wensu’s ‘Yongjia Genealogy’ distinguishes four sections, which is indeed a pioneering example in ancient geographical records. The so-called year genealogy refers to recording significant events of the chronicles and compiling them chronologically; the so-called land genealogy refers to recording mountains, boundaries, famous sites, and ancient sites; the so-called people genealogy refers to recording the appointments and dismissals of officials and election figures; however, the name genealogy is unclear, as it does not specify what it refers to.” He summarized all the matters within a region into four major categories: year, land, name, and people, dividing them into four sections.
The Ming dynasty’s “Guangping Prefecture Chronicle” divided into land, people, political affairs, and literature. The “Huzhou Prefecture Chronicle” divided into land, people, and political affairs. The “General Catalog of the Complete Library in Four Sections” states:“This book is divided into three sections: land, people, and political affairs, each section has subcategories, which differs from other chronicles.” Zhao Wenhua’s “Jiaxing Prefecture Illustrated Records” divided into geographical maps, political systems, local products, and cultural aspects, with attached records. The “General Catalog of the Complete Library in Four Sections” states: “The narrative has a clear structure, with geographical maps provided for each dynasty, which is particularly commendable.” The “Miyun County Chronicle” during the Kangxi period divided into astronomy, geography, and human affairs. The “Hejian Prefecture Chronicle” during the Qianlong period divided into geography, official politics, figures, and literature. The “Ba’an Prefecture Chronicle” during the Guangxu period divided into heaven, earth, people, and things. The structures of the above chronicles all belong to the three-treasure format.
The “Baxian Chronicle” during the Republic of China period also follows the three-treasure format. Its introduction states:“The literature of governing the world has three types: historical records, chronicles, and political books. Historical records record the past, chronicles record the present, and political books are designed to achieve the future based on the past, guiding people to follow and uphold. Since this book is named ‘Baxian Chronicle,’ it is not intended to be a historical record of Baxian, nor an administrative book of Baxian, but specifically records the current affairs, people, and things of Baxian.”
This structure seems simple and easy to implement, but in reality, there are many inconveniences. The main issue is that with fewer categories, it is difficult to summarize the complex matters of a region accurately. Taking the “Baxian Chronicle” as an example, Qu Xuanying commented:“Political affairs are a type of people’s activities, especially significant in self-governance and charity, which cannot be said to not belong to the people; land includes constructions made by people, such as rivers, channels, buildings, cities, and towns, which also cannot be excluded from political affairs.” This analysis is valid.
6. Periodic Format
Periodic format refers to a structure in which the first half of a chronicle describes the past, while the latter half describes the present. The “Ten Regions of the Zhenyuan” by Jia Dan from the Tang dynasty consists of four volumes, with the first volume describing the past, while the remaining three volumes describe the present. Quan Deyu stated in the preface of the “Ten Regions of the Zhenyuan”: “The first article starts from the beginning of the Zhen period, dividing the various states into ten regions, following the mountains and rivers, controlling the boundaries, and dividing the jurisdiction, with the historical changes of the various regions and the tributary goods, the rise and fall of establishments, and the changes in the system, all detailed in the text. In total, there are thirty-one military governors and eleven inspectors, listed at the end of the first article. The following three articles are based on the ten regions, detailing the distance from the counties to the states, and from the states to the western capital, recording the distances and matters, and the language is detailed and precise, making it a remarkable work.” From the preface, it can be seen that the first article records the states, regions, tributary goods, establishments, and changes before the Zhen period, only appending the military governors and inspectors of the Zhen period at the end of the first article for reference. The main purpose is to describe the past. The remaining three articles completely record the situation of the Zhen period, aiming to describe the present.
The “Geographical Records” by Ouyang Xiu from the Northern Song dynasty consists of 38 volumes. Qing scholar Zhou Zhongfu stated in the postscript of the “Geographical Records”: “This book was completed during the Zhenghe period, with the first three volumes compiled from the Yao and Shun dynasties to the Five Dynasties, giving an overview of the boundaries while associating them with the names of Song prefectures and counties. The fourth volume exclusively records Song prefectures, associating them with the names of Song prefectures and counties for the directory. The following five volumes list the changes and combinations of the 23 prefectures and counties, with the features of the regions outside the Song dynasty, although they did not belong to the Song period, are still included under each region, making the format clear and comprehensive, distinctly different from the local chronicles of the Northern Song period.” This structure is fundamentally similar to the “Ten Regions of the Zhenyuan” and markedly different from the chronicles after the Southern Song dynasty.
The “Chronicles of the Dynasty” by Wang Xixian from the Southern Song dynasty consists of 200 volumes. The “Zhi Zhai Shulu” states: “The previous generations referred to it as genealogies, while the sixteen genealogies amount to eighty volumes; our dynasty refers to it as chronicles, amounting to one hundred and twenty volumes. Genealogies narrate the facts of that time while annotating the current prefectures and counties; chronicles describe today’s geographical features while associating them with the ancient states, referencing both ancient and modern, with genealogies and chronicles interspersed, making it the most detailed in the field of geography.”
Due to the fact that the structure of local chronicles had already been established during the Southern Song dynasty, with the horizontal division of categories and vertical description of ancient and modern, this structure of ancient and modern division did not develop further. Few chronicles followed this pattern in later generations. Even if there are such structures, they mostly belong to the nature of supplementary chronicles or additional chronicles. For example, the “Nankang County Chronicle” during the Republic of China is such a chronicle. The preface states: “The ‘Nankang County Chronicle’ was first created in the 32nd year of the Jiajing period, and by the 11th year of the Tongzhi period, it had been revised six times, and now, after sixty-four years, there is a seventh revision. However, the Republic of China has undergone significant changes, and the categories of the old chronicles cannot encompass the new; I have imitated the examples of the ‘Henan Supplementary General Chronicle’ and ‘Supplementary Wuzhi County Chronicle,’ and starting from the year of the Republic of China, new categories have been established, named ‘Nankang County Chronicle’ Volume Two. The old chronicles only recorded until the Tongzhi period, and now the historical facts are compiled, continuing to the end of the Qing dynasty, collectively named ‘Nankang County Chronicle’ Volume One.”
The periodic format has the clear advantage of contrasting the past and present, and it also preserves the data from old chronicles, which is a clear benefit. However, as a single book, the division between the past and present can harm the overall integrity of the chronicles. Especially during times of significant social change, there may be events that existed in the past but not in the present, and vice versa, leading to inconsistencies in the categories between the past and present, which can affect the scientificity and systematicity of the chronicles.
7. Chronological Format
Chronological format refers to a structure that does not divide into categories but is arranged solely by time.
The “Guangling Tongdian,” written by Wang Zhong during the Qing dynasty, adopts this format. Gu Guangqi stated in the preface of the “Guangling Tongdian”: “Using the chronological format to create the geographical chapters, gathering various streams, and interspersing the days and months. The establishment of the Wu kingdom, led by Sun Shao, based on the significant geographical features, governs the peace and prosperity, with a comprehensive account of the changes in cities, the distance of roads, and the tributary goods. Everything is included, with no omissions, hence it is called comprehensive.” Fu Zhenlun in “General Theory of Chinese Local Chronicles” says: “There is also a chronological history of Yangzhou. It aims to seek clarity and ease of reading, hence does not divide into categories, compiling the chronicles into one volume, which remains a pioneering work in the local chronicles.” Wu Changshou’s “Wujun Comprehensive Examination” also adopts this format. Shou Pengfei in his article “A Brief View of the Essence of Local Chronicles” states: “Renhe Wu Changshou created the ‘Wujun Comprehensive Examination’ in ten volumes, which is an unfinished book. It imitates Jiangdu Wang Rongfu’s ‘Guangling Tongdian’ and adopts the chronological format for the geographical chapters, integrating history into chronicles, which is now referred to as the major events record (now known as the major events record) and is quite commendable for its meaning.” The “Jixian Chronicle” during the Republic of China also imitates the ‘Guangling Tongdian’ and the ‘General Records of Historical Geography’ in its format, recording events chronologically without dividing into categories, and attaching the cited literature at the end.
Fu Zhenlun in “General Theory of Chinese Local Chronicles” provides a relatively objective evaluation of this structure, stating:“The chronological record of events, detailing the events of the same year and era, allows for comprehensive detailing, but it can be cumbersome and difficult to trace cause and effect. This may be suitable for small counties and remote areas, but it is most unsuitable for large cities and significant regions with long histories and vast territories.” Therefore, chronicles of this structure are quite rare.
8. Chapter Format
Chapter format has been the writing format for historical records since the 20th century, disrupting the structure of biographical historical records, listing important historical events separately as independent chapters, and arranging them in a certain order. Bai Shouyi, the chief editor of “Introduction to Historical Studies,” states: “Since the 20th century, historical records have generally adopted chapter format, which is a new narrative format. This format does not originate from China’s inherent narrative style but has formed under the influence of Western writing styles. Compared to the old narrative formats, this format has a greater capacity and more systematic organization, but it has not replaced the advantages of biographical and chronological formats.” Due to its evident advantages, it has also been introduced into chronicles.
This format was introduced into chronicles during the late Qing dynasty, with the “Lian Guang Hall Chronicle Draft” during the Guangxu period, consisting of 10 volumes and 57 chapters, approximately 300,000 words. It is divided into eight sections: geography, customs, products, taxes, historical records, establishments, military defenses, schools, miscellaneous categories, and biographical records of notable figures and tables of officials. Under this, further chapters such as “features,” “mountains,” and “water” are established. This is known as one of the earliest chronicles to use chapter format.
The chapter format can be divided into:
(1) Chapter (or Section) Format
Chapter format has been adopted since the Republic of China period. For example, the “Zhaozhou County Chronicle” adopts this structure, with its directory as follows: Chapter One: General Overview; Chapter Two: Geography, with sections on boundaries, rivers, and transportation; Chapter Three: Politics, with sections on governance, self-governance, police administration, households, customs, and law; Chapter Four: Education, with sections on schools and religion; Chapter Five: Industries, with sections on agriculture, industry, commerce, fisheries, and taxation; Chapter Six: Military System, with sections on land defense and civil corps.
(2) Compiled (or Section) Chapter Format
In the 19th year of the Republic of China (1930), Liu Shuang’s “New Geography of Jilin” is divided into two volumes, with the upper volume being the natural section, divided into boundaries, terrain, geology, climate, and products; the lower volume is the cultural section, divided into names and changes, regional divisions, education, industries, transportation, finance, currency, administration, military, diplomacy, urban areas, towns, and ancient sites. Each chapter may also have sections or sub-categories.
The chapter format structure has a large category for the compiled chapters and small categories for the sections, with specific matters as subjects, creating a hierarchical structure with logical relationships that strengthen the scientificity and integrity of the chronicles. This structure began to appear in modern times, with occasional adoption during the Republic of China period, but it did not become widespread. However, during the socialist new local chronicles compilation process, its powerful vitality has gradually been promoted and applied.
Notes:
[1] “General Catalog of the Complete Library in Four Sections,” Volume 73, Geography Section Records.
[2] (Ming) Chen Xiaoxiu, Zhou Ying and Huang Zhongyi compiled “Xinghua Prefecture Chronicle,” Preface by Zhou Ying, printed in the tenth year of Tongzhi.
[3] Chen Guangyi: “Introduction to Rare Local Chronicles,” Qilu Publishing House, 1987.
[4] See He Mingdong’s “New Discoveries of Twenty Old Chronicles in Jiangxi (Draft),” published in “Chinese Local Chronicles” 1988, Issue 1.
[5] See Zhuge Ji: “Chronicle of Events in 50 Years of Chinese Local Chronicles,” Local Chronicle Publishing House, 2002, page 375.
Source: “Contemporary Chronicle Compilation Tutorial” (compiled by the Office of Local Chronicle Guidance, Local Chronicle Publishing House)Editor: Ma Zhenyang
