Today, I will share with you the fixed structures in Classical Chinese, which can be roughly divided into five categories: expressing questions, rhetorical questions, exclamations, conjectures, and choices.
1
Expressing Questions
1. 何所……？（所……是什么？）
This is a fixed structure for expressing questions. It is a transformation and compression of “所……者为何”, which can be translated as “Who (or what) is (the person, thing, or matter) of…?” For example:
①问女何所思，问女何所忆。（《木兰诗》）
Translation:Ask the girl what she is thinking, ask the girl what she is missing.
②卖炭得钱何所营？（白居易《卖炭翁》）
Translation:：What is the money earned from selling charcoal used for?
2. 奈何……？（……怎么办？为什么……？）
《鸿门宴》：今者出，未辞也，为之奈何？
《阿房宫赋》：奈何取之尽锱铢，用之如泥沙？
3.如……何；奈……何？（拿……怎样呢？）
《愚公移山》：如太行王屋何？
《垓下歌》：虞兮虞兮奈若何？
4. 孰与……？（与……比，哪个…？）
This structure expresses comparison and choice. When only comparing, it can be translated as “Compared to…, who (or which) …?” When making a choice after comparison, it can be translated as “Which is better?” This can also be combined with the choice conjunction “与其” to mean “Rather than… it is better to…” For example:
①我孰与城北徐公美？（《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》）
Translation:Who is more beautiful, me or Xu Gong from the north of the city?
②大天而思之，孰与物畜而制之？
Translation:To revere heaven and long for it, how can it compare to treating heaven as a thing to be controlled?
5. 安……乎？（怎么……呢？）
《赤壁之战》：然刘豫州新败之后，安能抗此难乎？
6. 独……耶？（难道……吗？）
《信陵君窃符救赵》：公子纵轻胜，弃之降秦，独不怜公子之姊耶？”
7. 何如
⑴代词性固定结构。常用于询问动作行为的方式或事物的性状。可译为“怎么样”。⑵表示比较的固定结构。可译为“比……怎么样”。同义结构还有“何若”、“奚如”、“胡如”、“奚若”等。如：
①樊哙曰：“今日之事何如？”（司马迁《鸿门宴》）
Translation:Fan Kuai said: “How is the situation today?”
②王以为何如其父？（司马迁《廉颇蔺相如列传》）
Translation:What does the king think of Zhao Kuo compared to his father?
2
Expressing Rhetorical Questions
1.何……哉（也)？（怎么能……呢？）
《游褒禅山记》：何可胜道也哉？（兼有感叹）
《陈涉世家》：若为佣耕，何富贵也？
2.岂（其)……哉（乎、耶） （哪里……呢？……哪里呢？）
《捕蛇者说》：岂若我乡邻之旦旦有是哉！（兼有感叹）
《鸿门宴》：沛公不先入关，公岂敢入乎？
《崤之战》未报秦施而伐秦师，其为死君乎？
《廉颇蔺相如列传》：岂以一壁之故欺秦邪？
3．安……哉（乎)？（哪里……呢？）
《陈涉世家》：燕雀安知鸿鹄之志哉？（兼有感叹）
4．不亦……乎？（不是……吗？）
This structure expresses rhetorical questions. The word “亦” has no real meaning but serves to strengthen the tone; the final particle “乎” can be replaced with “哉”, “邪”, etc. It can be translated as “Isn’t it…?” For example:
①学而时习之，不亦说乎？（《论语·学而》）
Translation:Learning and reviewing it regularly, isn’t that a joy?
5.……非……欤？（……不是……吗？）
《屈原列传》：子非三闾大夫欤？
6.宁……耶？（哪里……呢？）
《祭妹文》：宁知此为归骨所耶？（兼有惑叹）
7. 顾……哉？（难道……吗？）
《为学》：顾不如蜀鄙之僧哉？（兼有感叹）
8. 独……哉？（难道……吗？）
《廉颇蔺相如列传》：相如虽驽，独畏廉将军哉？
3
Expressing Exclamations
1.何其……也！（怎么那么……啊！）
《伶官传序》：至于誓天断发，泣下沾襟，何其衰也！
2.直……耳！（只不过……罢了！）
《孟子•梁惠王上》：王日：“不可，直不过百步耳！”
3.惟……耳！（只……罢了！）
《谭嗣同》：吾已无事可办，惟待死耳！
4.一何……（多么……啊！）
《石壕吏》：吏呼一何怒，妇啼一何苦！
5.亦……哉！（也真是……啊！）
《五人墓碑记》：…且立石于其墓之门，以旌其所为。呜呼，亦盛矣哉！
4
Expressing Conjectures
1.无乃……乎（欤)（恐怕……吧？)（兼表反问）
This structure expresses a tentative question. The tone is polite. The final particle “乎” can be replaced with other question particles. It can be translated as “I fear that…” or “Could it be that…?” For example:
①今君王既栖于会稽之上，然后乃求谋臣，无乃后乎？（《勾践灭吴》）
Translation:Now that you have retreated to Mount Kuaiji, is it not too late to seek advisors?
②无乃尔是过与？（《论语》）
Translation:Could it be that you should be blamed?
2.得无（微)……乎？（该不是……吧？)（兼表反问）
This structure expresses a tentative question with a polite tone. The final particle “乎” can be replaced with other question particles. It can be translated as “Could it be that…?” or “Is it possible that…?” For example:
日食饮得无衰乎？（《触龙说赵太后》）
Translation:Is it possible that your daily meals have decreased?
3.其……欤？（不是……吗？)（兼表反问）
《师说》其可怪也欤？
4.庶几……欤？（或许……吧？）
《孟子二章》吾王庶几无疾病欤？
5
Expressing Choices
1.与其……孰若……？（与其……，哪如……？）
《冯婉贞》与其坐而待亡，孰若起而拯之？
2.……欤（耶），抑……欤（耶)？（是……，还是……呢？）
《伶官传序》岂得之难而失之易欤？抑本其成败之迹，而皆自于人欤？
3.其……耶？其……也？（是……呢？还是……呢？）
《逍遥游》：天之苍苍，其正色邪？其远而无所至极邪？
6
Other Fixed Structures
1．然则
This is a conjunction structure. “然” connects to the previous text, and “则” indicates inference. It can be translated as “Since this is the case, then…” For example:
①是进亦忧，退亦忧，然则何时而乐耶？（范仲淹《岳阳楼记》）
Translation:Entering the court brings worries, retreating to the riverside also brings worries, since this is the case, when can one be happy?
②然则小固不可以敌大，寡固不可以敌众，弱固不可以敌强。（孟子《齐桓晋文之事》）
Translation:Since this is the case, small countries cannot resist large countries, the few cannot resist the many, and the weak cannot resist the strong.
2．是以（以是）
This structure indicates a result. It can be translated as “therefore”. Other synonymous structures include “以此”, “是用”, “用是”, “用此”, “是故”, “以故”. For example:
①此皆良实，志虑忠纯，是以先帝简拔以遗陛下。（诸葛亮《前出师表》）
Translation:These are all good and honest people with loyal and pure intentions, therefore the late emperor selected them to leave for Your Majesty.
②敏而好学，不耻下问，是以谓之文也。
Translation:Being intelligent and diligent in learning, not ashamed to ask those of lower status, is why he can be called “cultured”.
3．有所……，无所……
This structure consists of two opposite meanings. “有” and “无” are verbs, and “所…” is a phrase that serves as the object of “有” or “无”. They can be translated as “there are… (people, things)” and “there are no… (people, things)”. For example:
①将将在外，主令有所不受，以便国家。（司马迁《信陵君窃符救赵》）
Translation:The general in the field may not accept the orders of the ruler, in order to benefit the state.
②财物无所取，妇女无所幸。（司马迁《鸿门宴》）
Translation:No property was taken, and no women were favored.
4．有以……，无以……
This structure consists of two opposite meanings. They are used before the predicate verb, equivalent to the role of auxiliary verbs. They can be translated as “there is something to… (people, things)” and “there is nothing to… (people, things)”. For example:
臣乃得有以报太子。（《荆轲刺秦王》）
Translation:I can have the opportunity to repay the Crown Prince.
5．……之谓也
This structure indicates a summary judgment. The word “之” is a structural particle indicating the fronting of the object; “谓” is a verb meaning “to say”; “也” is a modal particle indicating judgment. It can be translated as “what is said is…”. For example:
①诗云：“他人有心，予忖度之。”——夫子之谓也。（孟子《齐桓晋文之事》）
Translation:The poem says: “Others have thoughts, I can guess them.” — This refers to you.
If “之谓” is in the middle of the sentence, and the object is after “谓”, this is another fixed structure. It can be translated as “… is called…” or “… is referred to as…”. For example:
②此之谓失其本心。（孟子《鱼我所欲也》）
Translation:This is called losing one’s sense of shame and morality.
7
Common Translations of Fixed Structures in Classical Chinese
1．诚……则……：If… then…
2．得以：to be able to.
3．俄而：soon, in a moment.
4．而况：let alone, moreover.
5．而已：that’s all.
6．否则：if not… then… .
7．何乃：let alone, why so. 何乃太区区：You are so narrow-minded.
8．何其：why so, how so; how much.
9．既而：then, soon.
10．既……且……：both… and… .
11．见……于……：to be seen by.
12．可得：can, possible.
13．可以：can be used to; can, to be able to.
14．乃尔：actually, unexpectedly.
15．且夫：moreover, furthermore.
16．然而：however; but; (since) this is the case, then.
17．是故：therefore, thus.
18．虽然：although, even so.
19．所谓：what is said, what is considered.
20．所以：the reason for…; the method for…; used to…; the place for…; the person (thing) for…; relying on it to… .
21．往往：everywhere; often.
22．……何如哉？What would it be like?
23．之于：towards, the attitude towards…; same as, compared to… .
24．安……乎？How about…?
25．未尝：never.
26．谓……曰……：to say to…; to tell…; to call… .
27．谓之：to call him, to say he is; to refer to as.
28．无几何：not long, soon.
29．无虑：approximately, roughly.
30．毋宁，无宁：rather, would rather; is it not…? .
31．自非：if not, unless. For example: 自非亭午夜分，不见曦月。
32．至于：to, until; even to, resulting in.
33．于是：at this time, here, in this situation, due to this reason.
34．无庸：no need.
35．无由：impossible, cannot.
36．相率：to lead each other, together.
37．相与：mutually, together; with you; together, jointly; to get along, to interact. For example: 相与枕藉乎舟中。
38．向使：if, for example. For example: 向使三国各爱其人。
39．因而：therefore, thus.
40．一切：all, everything; temporarily.
41．以故：therefore.
42．以……故……：because… therefore… .
43．以至于：up to; resulting in.
44．以……为……：to consider… as…; to treat… as…; to let… be…; to use… as…; to make… as… .
45．以为：to think he (it) is; to consider; to use it to.
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