What is the C.A.R.S. Model
The C.A.R.S. model, or “Creating A Research Space“, is an academic writing model proposed by scholar John Swales, primarily used for writing the introduction section of academic papers.
Its core idea is: the introduction is the process by which the author “establishes territory” in the academic field, serving as the first step in explaining the value and significance of their research to the academic community.
Swales found that although writing styles vary across different disciplines, high-quality research introductions often follow a common logical structure. He summarized this structure into three “Moves” — Establishing the Field (Move 1), Establishing the Gap (Move 2), and Filling the Gap (Move 3).
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Creating a Research Space (C.A.R.S. Model)
Move 1: Establishing the Research Field [Current Status Description]
This stage is typically achieved through two approaches: First, demonstrating the importance, criticality, interest, problematic nature, relevance, or other reasons worth exploring in a broad research area; Second, introducing and reviewing key research findings in the field to illustrate the shortcomings or inadequately explored aspects of existing research.
Ways to achieve this step include:
Step 1 — Emphasizing the importance of the research [Writing action = describing the research problem and providing evidence that the topic is worth studying]
Example: In recent years, as the issue of … has become increasingly prominent, research in related fields has gradually attracted scholars’ attention.
Step 2 — Presenting a summary of the topic [Writing action = stating the current state of knowledge, consensus, practices, or phenomenon description]
Step 3 — Reviewing previous research findings [Writing action = synthesizing prior research to support the necessity of the study; this is not a complete literature review but selectively showcasing key studies]
Example: Previous studies have shown that …, however, most of these studies focus on …, lacking a comprehensive exploration of … .
Move 2: Establishing the Research Gap [Problem Statement]
This part aims to clearly and forcefully indicate that the field you are studying has value. This can be achieved by pointing out gaps in existing research, challenging mainstream assumptions, posing questions or hypotheses, or expanding upon existing research.
Ways to achieve this step include:
Step 1a — Presenting counterarguments [Writing action = introducing different viewpoints, pointing out flaws or limitations in previous research]
Example: Although previous research suggests that …, studies on … indicate that the actual situation may not be so.
Step 1b — Identifying research gaps [Writing action = posing questions around the research gaps in the literature]
Example: Despite the extensive research in the field of …, there remain many gaps in the study of … .
Step 1c — Posing questions [Writing action = indicating questions arising from research gaps, such as, “Although existing research has observed voter behavior in Detroit local elections, it remains unclear why some single mothers choose not to participate … “]
Example: However, existing research has failed to explore … in depth, thus this paper aims to study … .
Step 1d — Continuing the research tradition [Writing action = expanding or deepening based on existing research, using logical connectors such as “therefore,” “thus,” “hence it is necessary to,” etc.]
Move 3: Filling the Research Gap [Solution]
The final step is to explain how your research will bring new knowledge or understanding compared to previous studies. This is also the part that outlines the structure of the paper.
Ways to achieve this step include:
Step 1a — Outlining the research purpose [Writing action = answering the question “What does this mean?” clearly stating the research objectives]
Step 1b — Announcing the content of this research [Writing action = describing what the research will do, what it will achieve, which in social sciences also relates to “why is it important?”]
Example: Therefore, this paper aims to explore the impact of … through … research and propose corresponding solutions.
Step 2 — Announcing main findings [Writing action = briefly summarizing core findings, such as “The research shows …”, “The results indicate a need for … “]
Example: This study fills the gap in the field of …, providing a unique perspective on … .
Step 3 — Clarifying the structure of the paper [Writing action = explaining how the rest of the paper is organized]
Example: The following sections will successively introduce …, and provide a detailed analysis of … .
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Writing Techniques
Swales pointed out that “establishing the research gap” (Move 2) is often reflected through specific terms, which can express contrasting viewpoints, critical evaluations, or shortcomings of previous research. The role of these words is to clearly distinguish the problems you have identified from existing research, thereby reflecting the unique value of your research. The table below lists some commonly used vocabulary in this step (Since the reference website is in English, it is best to refer to the application of English words here):
Contrast Words:albeit, although, but, howbeit, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, unfortunately, whereas, yet
Quantity Words:few, handful, less, little, no, none, not
Verbs:challenge, deter, disregard, exclude, fail, hinder, ignore, lack, limit, misinterpret, neglect, obviate, omit, overlook, prevent, question, restrict
Adjectives:difficult, dubious, elusive, inadequate, incomplete, inconclusive, inefficacious, ineffective, inefficient, questionable, scarce, uncertain, unclear, unconvincing, unproductive, unreliable, unsatisfactory
Example Sentences:
Prior research has focused primarily on A, rather than on B.
Prior research primarily focused on A, rather than B.
Prior research into A can be beneficial, but to rectify X, it is important to examine B.
Although A’s research is beneficial, it is necessary to examine B to correct X.
These studies have placed an emphasis in the areas of A as opposed to describing B.
These studies emphasized the area of A, without describing B.
While prior studies have examined A, it may be preferable to contemplate the impact of B.
While previous studies explored A, it may also be necessary to consider the impact of B.
After consideration of A, it is important to also distinguish B.
After studying A, it is also necessary to distinguish B.
The study of A has been thorough, but changing circumstances related to X support a need for examining (or revisiting) B.
The research on A has been thorough, but due to changes in X, there is a need to revisit B.
Although research has been devoted to A, less attention has been paid to B.
Although existing research has focused on A, there has been less attention to B.
Earlier research offers insights into the need for A, though consideration of B would be particularly helpful to address [the issue].
Earlier research provides insights into A, but considering B would be particularly helpful in addressing the issue.
Despite substantial research addressing sustainability education in school curricula, little is known about its implementation in informal educational settings. Existing studies tend to overlook the complexity of interactions between educators and participants in informal learning contexts. Furthermore, evaluation methods for these programs remain inadequate and often inconclusive. Consequently, there is a pressing need to examine models and metrics for sustainability education in informal contexts in more depth.
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How to Apply the C.A.R.S. Model in Writing?
Step 1: Gather Background Information (Prepare for Move 1)
Read core literature to identify the importance and trends of the research
Extract commonly mentioned terms, data, and issues in the field
Step 2: Identify Research Gaps (Prepare for Move 2)
Compare the subjects, methods, regions, and variables of existing research
Ask yourself: “What questions have not been sufficiently studied?”
Step 3: Clarify Research Purpose and Contribution (Move 3)
Write your research objectives in concise, clear language
Emphasize how it complements or extends existing research
If applicable, briefly mention the design or methods of the research (e.g., “This study will conduct semi-structured interviews and pre-and post-test experimental design”)
Advanced Techniques and Writing Strategies
Build Clear Logic: Write in the order of Moves (Establish Background → Identify Gap → Propose Research), helping readers gradually understand why your research is necessary, thus constructing a coherent introduction logic.
Control Tone and Style: Use neutral, supplementary, and transitional expressions, respecting the contributions of previous research, avoiding direct denigration, thereby demonstrating academic cultivation and collaborative spirit.
Flexible Nested Structure: When facing complex research topics, you can repeatedly use the three-step structure (Move 1 → Move 2 → Move 3), gradually focusing from the broader context to specific issues, enhancing the depth and persuasiveness of the argument.
Pay Attention to Language Signals: Use language prompts and logical connectors (such as however, while, although, therefore, etc.) appropriately to enhance the logical coherence and professional expressiveness of the text.
Select References to Support Background: Citations should be selective and purposeful, not seeking quantity but precision and effectiveness. Each citation should serve the construction of the “research space,” reinforcing the rationale and innovation of your research.
References
Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks. 3rd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2012.
“Introductions.” The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif.
“How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet.
“Academic Writing Workshop.” University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken.
“The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model.” Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005.
“Introductions.” The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Atai, Mahmood Reza.
“Exploring Subdisciplinary Variations and Generic Structure of Applied Linguistics Research Article Introductions Using CARS Model.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 2 (Fall 2009): 26-51; Chanel, Dana.
“Research Article Introductions in Cultural Studies: A Genre Analysis Exploration of Rhetorical Structure.” The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes 2 (2014): 1-20; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif.
“How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet.
“Academic Writing Workshop.” University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken.
“The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model.” Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak.
Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks. 3rd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2012; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; Chapter 5: Beginning Work. In Writing for Peer Reviewed Journals: Strategies for Getting Published. Pat Thomson and Barbara Kamler. (New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 93-96.
Dretske, Fred I. “Contrastive Statements.” The Philosophical Review 81 (October 1972): 411-437; Kayfetz, Janet.
“Academic Writing Workshop.” University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken.
“The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model.” Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John M.
Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990
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