Central Processing Unit, Central Processing Unit
In 1978, a company named CPU quietly emerged in Cambridge, England.
Don’t be surprised, this CPU is different from the one we often refer to in computers.
The full name of the CPU company is Cambridge Processor Unit, literally meaning “Cambridge Processor Unit”.
The founders of CPU were Hermann Hauser, an Austrian physicist, and his friend Chris Curry, a British engineer.
Hermann Hauser and Chris Curry
After the establishment of CPU, the company primarily engaged in the design and manufacturing of electronic devices. Their first order was to manufacture a microcontroller system for gambling machines…
This microcontroller system was developed and called Acorn System 1.
Acorn System 1
In 1979, as operations began to stabilize, the company changed its name to Acorn Computer Ltd.
What does Acorn mean? It means acorn. Yes, the thing that the squirrel has been chasing in Ice Age.
The trademark of Acorn Computer Ltd includes an acorn.
The reason for the name Acorn has an interesting explanation, which is that they wanted to be listed ahead of Apple in the phone book…
After Acorn System 1, they developed System 2, 3, 4, and a consumer-oriented boxed computer – Acorn Atom.
Acorn Atom
By 1981, the company faced a rare opportunity – the BBC planned to broadcast a series of programs across the UK to promote computer literacy, hoping Acorn could produce a computer to accompany it.
This plan was grand, and the British government was involved (half of the purchase cost would be funded by the government), and once procured, the computers would enter every classroom in the UK.
After accepting this task, Acorn began its work. However, they quickly realized that their product’s hardware design could not meet the demand. At that time, the trend in central processing units was shifting from 8-bit to 16-bit. Acorn did not have suitable chips available.
Initially, they planned to use 16-bit chips from National Semiconductor and Motorola. However, after evaluation, they found two defects:
First, the chip execution speed was a bit slow, and the interrupt response time was too long.
Second, the price was too high; in a £500 computer, the processor chip accounted for £100.
Thus, they intended to approach the then-popular Intel, hoping to obtain design materials and samples for the 80286 processor. However, Intel coldly rejected them.
Disheartened, Acorn decided to go it alone and create their own chips. (Isn’t this scenario familiar?)
At that time, Acorn’s R&D personnel found research on a new type of processor at the University of California, Berkeley – Reduced Instruction Set, which happened to meet their design requirements.
Based on this, after years of hard work, computer scientists Sophie Wilson and Steve Furber from Cambridge University finally completed the microprocessor design.
Sophie Wilson and Steve Furber, the former responsible for instruction set development, and the latter for chip design.
Acorn named this chip the Acorn RISC Machine.
This is the origin of the famous acronym “ARM”.
Acorn is the company name, Machine is machine, what does RISC mean?
As mentioned earlier, they based their chip on “Reduced Instruction Set” technology. RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
Let’s explain what “Reduced Instruction Set” means.
It is a concept relative to “Complex Instruction Set (CISC, complex instruction set computer).”
Early processors were all CISC architectures (including Intel processors), and over time, more and more instruction sets were added. Since compiler technology was not mature at that time, programs were often written directly in machine code or assembly language, and to reduce program design time, single instructions with complex operations were gradually developed. Designers only needed to write simple instructions and let the CPU execute them.
However, later it was found that only about 20% of the instructions in the entire instruction set were frequently used, which accounted for about 80% of the entire program; the remaining 80% of the instructions only accounted for 20% of the entire program (the typical 80/20 principle).
Thus, in 1979, Professor David Patterson from the University of California, Berkeley proposed the idea of RISC, advocating that hardware should focus on accelerating commonly used instructions, while more complex instructions should be combined using common instructions.
In simple terms, CISC has strong task processing capabilities, suitable for desktop computers and servers. RISC, by simplifying CISC instruction types and formats, and simplifying addressing methods, achieves energy-saving efficiency, suitable for portable electronic products such as mobile phones, tablets, and digital cameras.
The first processor chip developed at that time was designated ARM1.
Let’s compare ARM1 with Intel’s 80286 processor (commonly referred to as 286):
It can be seen that ARM1 and 80286 each have their strengths.
However, in the same year, October 1985, Intel released the 80386. In front of the 80386, ARM1 could only be overwhelmed.
Intel 80386
Intel 80386, 32-bit, 275,000 transistors, with a frequency of 12.5MHz, later increased to 33MHz.
It was clearly unrealistic for ARM to directly compete with the x86 series in terms of performance. ARM intentionally chose a different design route from Intel – while Intel continued to move towards high-performance designs for x86, ARM focused on low-cost, low-power research and development.
Getting back to the BBC’s request for a computer.
As mentioned earlier, the BBC proposed the need in 1981, and if they had to wait until 1985 for ARM1 to come out, wouldn’t that be too late?
Therefore, before ARM1 was launched, Acorn had already provided a solution to the BBC.
At that time, Acorn’s computer temporarily adopted the MOS 6502 processor (an 8-bit microprocessor developed by MOS Technology).
MOS 6502 processor
This computer was initially named Proton, but later renamed BBC Micro.
BBC Micro
By 1984, about 80% of schools in the UK were equipped with this computer. Acorn completely made its presence felt in the British Empire.
Later, after the ARM processor was developed, it was used in subsequent models of BBC Micro.
ARM chip inside BBC Micro computer
After ARM1, Acorn launched several series, such as ARM2, ARM3.
Time continued to move forward.
In 1990, Acorn established a company named ARM to cooperate with Apple.
The logo can be said to be quite simple
Note that here ARM is the company name, not the chip name. The full spelling of this ARM is Advanced RISC Machines.
The previous chip name: Acorn RISC Machine
The current company name: Advanced RISC Machines
ARM is a joint venture, with Apple investing £1.5 million, chip manufacturer VLSI investing £250,000, and Acorn itself contributing £1.5 million in intellectual property and 12 engineers.
Nevertheless, ARM’s start was rather humble. Their initial office location was a barn…
However, the internal environment of the barn was quite good.
In the years following its establishment, ARM’s performance was mediocre, and engineers were anxious, fearing they would be unemployed at any time.
In this situation, ARM decided to change their product strategy – they would no longer produce chips but would instead transfer chip design plans to other companies through licensing, adopting a “Partnership” open model.
Unexpectedly, this model opened a new era for ARM.
Note! The following paragraph is key!
The commercial model adopted by ARM is IP (Intellectual Property) licensing, charging a one-time technical licensing fee and royalty.
Specifically, ARM has three licensing methods: processor, POP, and architecture licensing.
Processor licensing refers to licensing partner manufacturers to use ARM-designed processors. They cannot change the original design but can adjust the product’s frequency, power consumption, etc., according to their needs.
POP (processor optimization pack) licensing is a more advanced form of processor licensing, where ARM sells optimized processors to licensed partners, facilitating the design and production of performance-guaranteed processors under specific processes.
Architecture licensing allows ARM to authorize partner manufacturers to use its architecture, enabling them to design processors according to their needs (for example, Qualcomm’s Krait architecture and Apple’s Swift architecture were designed after obtaining ARM’s authorization).
Therefore, licensing fees and royalties became ARM’s main sources of income. In addition, income from software tools and technical support services.
For semiconductor companies, how much are the licensing fees and royalties? The one-time technical licensing fee ranges from $1 million to $10 million, with royalty rates typically between 1% and 2%.
It is precisely ARM’s licensing model that greatly reduces its R&D costs and risks. It forms an ecosystem centered around ARM through a risk-sharing, benefit-sharing model, making low-cost innovation possible.
After ARM proposed this cooperation model, they began to experiment –
In 1991, ARM licensed its products to UK GEC Plessey Semiconductor.
In 1993, ARM licensed its products to Cirrus Logic and Texas Instruments (TI).
The cooperation with Texas Instruments brought significant breakthroughs for ARM and established its reputation, confirming the feasibility of the licensing model.
Since then, more and more companies have participated in this licensing model and established cooperative relationships with ARM, including companies such as Samsung and Sharp.
On this basis, ARM firmly decided to adopt the licensing model and began designing more cost-effective products.
In 1993, Apple launched a new handheld computer product – Newton. The ARM6 chip developed by ARM was used in this product.
Apple Newton Message Pad
Apple Newton Message Pad is now considered the ancestor of PDAs and smartphones.
Unfortunately, due to overly advanced technology and some user experience flaws, it failed to be accepted by the market and ended in failure.
However, ARM accumulated experience and continued to improve its technology. Soon, ARM welcomed its golden opportunity – the arrival of the mobile phone era.
ARM first welcomed a major client – Nokia.
At that time, Nokia was advised to use Texas Instruments’ system design for the upcoming GSM phone, and this design was based on ARM chips.
Due to memory space issues, Nokia initially rejected ARM.
To address this, ARM specifically developed a 16-bit custom instruction set that reduced memory usage.
Nokia 6110, many people have used or seen it
ARM later launched a series of chips like ARM7 and licensed them to over 165 companies. With the explosive popularity of mobile phones, ARM profited immensely.
On April 17, 1998, the rapidly developing ARM Holdings went public on both the London Stock Exchange and NASDAQ.
ARM goes public on NASDAQ
After ARM went public, Apple, in the post-Jobs era, gradually sold its ARM shares to invest in the development of the iPod product.
Given that Apple researchers were very familiar with the ARM chip architecture, the iPod continued to use ARM chips.
Apple iPod
As we all know, under Jobs’ leadership, the iPod achieved tremendous commercial success.
This is not the end; in 2007, a truly epoch-making product emerged.
That is the iPhone.
The appearance of the Apple iPhone completely revolutionized mobile phone design, ushering in a new era.
The first generation iPhone used a chip designed by ARM and manufactured by Samsung.
The iPhone’s hot sales and the rapid rise of the App Store completely bound global mobile applications to the ARM instruction set.
Immediately after, in 2008, Google launched the Android system, also based on the ARM instruction set.
Thus, the smartphone market entered a rapid development stage, and ARM established its dominant position in the smartphone market.
In the same year, the shipment of ARM chips reached ten billion.
In 2011, even the traditional Wintel alliance (Windows + Intel) announced that the Windows 8 platform would support ARM architecture.
Intel must be regretting its decisions.
In fact, it was Intel that gradually paved the way for ARM to its current irreplaceable position. In the 1990s, Qualcomm wanted to cooperate with Intel, but Intel rejected the cooperation, believing the mobile phone market was too small. Later, Apple’s first iPhone also wanted to cooperate with Intel, but Intel still rejected it for the same reason. As a result, the mobile device market was handed over to ARM, and now Intel cannot regain it.
In June 2010, Apple expressed its intention to acquire ARM for $8.5 billion but was rejected by ARM’s board.
On July 18, 2016, Masayoshi Son, who had invested in Alibaba, and his Japanese SoftBank Group acquired ARM Group for £24.3 billion (approximately $30.9 billion).
Masayoshi Son
Thus, ARM became a wholly-owned subsidiary of SoftBank Group. However, SoftBank Group stated that it would not interfere with or influence ARM’s future business plans and decisions.
Finally, I think it is necessary to briefly introduce ARM’s product system, which can indeed be a bit confusing, and many industry insiders easily get confused.
Before the ARM11 chip, the relationship between each chip and architecture was as follows:
The actual chip models are not limited to these
After the ARM11 chip, starting from the ARMv7 architecture, ARM’s naming method changed.
The new processor family is named Cortex and is divided into three series: Cortex-A, Cortex-R, and Cortex-M. Haha, did you notice? The three letters are again A, R, M.
The Cortex-A series (A: Application) is designed for the growing consumer entertainment and wireless products, used in applications with high computing requirements, running rich operating systems, and providing interactive media and graphical experiences, such as smartphones, tablets, automotive entertainment systems, digital TVs, etc.
Cortex-A series
The Cortex-R series (R: Real-time) is targeted at systems requiring real-time operation, aimed at deep embedded real-time applications such as automotive braking systems, power transmission solutions, large-capacity storage controllers, etc.
Cortex-R series
The Cortex-M series (M: Microcontroller) targets the microcontroller field, mainly for cost and power-sensitive applications, such as smart measurement, human-machine interface devices, automotive and industrial control systems, household appliances, consumer products, and medical devices.
Cortex-M series
In fact, besides the three major series mentioned above, there is also a security-focused Cortex-SC series (SC: SecurCore), mainly used for government security chips.
Alright, after so much discussion, let’s summarize!
In short, the reason ARM has achieved its current position is due to both external opportunities and internal strategic factors.
They chose a path completely opposite to Intel. Intel has always adhered to a heavy asset, closed full industry chain business model, while ARM has opted for a light asset, open cooperation and win-win model.
For ARM, the success of its partners means its own success. Every company that does business with ARM has established a “win-win” symbiotic relationship with ARM.
ARM’s cooperation community includes over 1,200 partners
ARM’s DNA in low power consumption coincided with the explosive growth of mobile devices, ultimately leading to its brilliance.
In the upcoming era of the Internet of Everything, it is foreseeable that ARM is likely to achieve even greater success.
What have you learned from ARM’s story? Here are a few takeaways:
1. When pushed to the limit, people can do anything.
2. The weakness you’ve always thought you had may actually be your strength.
3. If you can’t compete with your opponent, find a way to unite more friends.
Alright, that’s it for today. Thank you for your patience!
See you next time!
Reposted from Fresh Date Classroom Baidu account
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