Broadly speaking, the techniques of expression refer to the special ways in which authors organize their sentences when writing and expressing thoughts and feelings.
Since modern Chinese language education does not emphasize the distinction between techniques of expression and expression skills, it can be considered that the two are unified. However, it is important to strictly differentiate that techniques of expression fall under the category of expression skills.
Common types of techniques of expression include:
1. By structure: Direct approach, transitional phrases, concluding remarks, combining points and surfaces, suspense, foreshadowing, echoing, and clues.
(1) Direct approach: The article starts directly with the main topic, without beating around the bush. The entry point is unique, the perspective is fresh, and it leads the entire text, outlining the main points and introducing the subsequent content or topic; it clarifies elements, creates atmosphere, and establishes emotional tone.For example: In Zhu Ziqing’s “Back Shadow,” I have not seen my father for more than two years, and what I cannot forget the most is his back. The opening directly addresses the topic, indicating that what the author cannot forget is his father’s back.
(2) Transitional phrases: Using words, sentences, or paragraphs to connect and transition.Expressive effect: The structure is rigorous, seamless, with mutual echoes, shifting topics, connecting events, changing scenes, tightly linked, and coherent.
(3) Concluding remarks: At the end of the article, using one or two sentences to clarify the central theme is called concluding remarks, also known as “pointing out the theme at the end.” “Theme” refers to the main idea of the article. “Conclude” means to finish. Proper use of this technique can enhance the depth, emotional impact, and structural beauty of the article, creating an artistic effect akin to “the finishing touch.” Also known as “concluding remarks to reveal the theme,” this is a common writing method, generally applicable in all literary forms, and is used more frequently in essays. Concluding remarks are one of the techniques of intention.
(4) Foreshadowing and echoing:a. Foreshadowing, is essentially a way of hinting at events that will occur, laying the groundwork for plot development. Its advantage is that it provides implicit information, making the article’s structure tight and compact, preventing readers from feeling abrupt or doubtful when they read the subsequent content. After foreshadowing, there must be an echo later.For example, in “Hometown,” when “I” just returned to my hometown, my mother said, “There is also Run Tu, who always asks about you whenever he comes to my house. He really wants to see you. I have already informed him of your approximate arrival date, and he may come soon.” This is a foreshadowing, which not only clarifies the relationship between Run Tu and “I” but also hints that “I” will meet Run Tu, making his later appearance very natural.b. Echoing, refers to the correspondence and echoing of content before and after in the article. The main methods include echoing with foreshadowing, echoing with the beginning or title, and repeated echoing. Good echoing can make the article’s structure rigorous and detailed, and the theme more distinct.For example, in the article “Back Shadow,” the term “back shadow” is mentioned four times, and “tears” three times, with repeated echoing, making the emotional expression increasingly intense. The flowing tears express the son’s feelings while highlighting the touching image of the back. This article is a crystallization of emotion and tears.
(5) Clues: Time, space, characters, and events. The internal connections of events, the author’s thoughts and feelings, weave all materials into an organic thread, making the article’s structure tight, interconnected, and seamless.
2. From the perspective of techniques: Association, symbolism, foreshadowing, embellishment, contrast, highlighting, and using objects to express intentions, seeing the big through the small, and combining the virtual with the real.
(1) Association and imagination: Association refers to the psychological process of thinking of one thing when observing another, while imagination refers to the process of creating new images based on existing sensory images. Association and imagination are often used together, enriching the content of the article, making the images more vivid and full, and enhancing the artistic expressiveness of the writing.
(2) Symbolism: Using a specific object to express an abstract concept, thought, or feeling, characterized by the use of a certain feature (content) between the symbol and the symbolized to achieve implicit and vivid expression, enhancing the expressiveness of the article. The technique of symbolism, or “using objects to express intentions,” means “borrowing this to express that,” with the main idea being implicit and not obscure.For example, in Gorky’s prose poem “The Seagull,” the author uses symbolism throughout the text, endowing the proud flying seagull with the symbolic meaning of a revolutionary pioneer, making the work’s significance more profound.
(3) Foreshadowing: Before the main characters or climax of events appear, descriptions of the environment, emotions, and atmosphere are made to create an artistic effect of “the mountain rain is about to come, the wind fills the building.” It can show the inevitability of plot development, enhance the work’s emotional impact and persuasiveness, and create suspense, attracting readers’ interest and attention.For example, the opening description of the desolate scene in “Hometown” lays the groundwork for the later appearance of Yang Ersao and Run Tu. In Lu Xun’s “Kong Yiji,” it is written: “After the Mid-Autumn Festival, the autumn wind is getting cooler day by day; it seems to be approaching early winter; I have to wear a cotton coat while leaning against the fire all day.” Here, through the description of the natural environment, it hints that the weather has become very cold (the autumn wind is getting cooler, early winter, leaning against the fire, wearing a cotton coat), laying the groundwork for the tragic fate of Kong Yiji later.
(4) Embellishment: Embellishment is using other things, that is, through the description of surrounding characters or environments to express the main object, using one thing to imply another, rather than similar or opposite things to highlight it; it is essentially a form of side description.For example, in the first chapter of “The Book of Songs: Qin Wind: Reed,” the lines “The reeds are green, the white dew is frost” and “The reeds are withered, the white dew has not dried” describe the color of the reeds from green to desolate to white, intensifying the atmosphere of desolation in late autumn, highlighting the poet’s environment as very cold and his mood as very lonely.
(5) Embellishment: Refers to using similar or opposing conditions of things to highlight the main subject. “Embellishment” is divided into positive and negative embellishment. a. Positive embellishment refers to using similar characteristics and conditions between things to highlight the main subject.For example, Li Bai’s “To Wang Lun” states, “The water of the Peach Blossom Pool is deep a thousand feet, not as deep as Wang Lun’s feelings for me.” (Using the depth of the Peach Blossom Pool to highlight the deeper friendship with Wang Lun.) b. Negative embellishment refers to using opposing conditions of things to highlight the main subject. The line “The cicadas are noisy, the forest is quieter; the birds sing, the mountains are more secluded” expresses this meaning. Embellishment uses secondary things as a foil to highlight a main thing. One is a tool, and the other is a purpose, with a clear distinction between the two.
(7) Contrast: Comparing two corresponding things to make the images more vivid and the feelings more intense. Using this technique is beneficial to fully display the contradictions of things, highlight the essential characteristics of the expressed things, and enhance the artistic effect and emotional impact of the article.a. Using contrast techniques to describe characters and portray personalities.For example, Chekhov’s “The Chameleon” describes the police officer Ochumelov’s attitude towards handling a case where a dog bites a craftsman, which changes four times in an instant, repeatedly contrasting his attitude before and after, vividly portraying the character of the “chameleon.”For example, in “Fan Jin’s Success,” the contrast between the butcher Hu’s attitude towards Fan Jin before and after his success.
b. Using contrast techniques to depict scenery and express emotions.For example, Lu Xun’s “From the Hundred Grass Garden to the Three Flavor Study” describes the scenery of the Hundred Grass Garden, which is a vibrant and free world, and the joy of the young “I” is vividly expressed. The description of the scenery here forms a sharp contrast with the dull and tedious atmosphere of the “Three Flavor Study,” naturally revealing “my” weariness and annoyance towards the “Three Flavor Study.”
(8) Suppression and elevation: “Elevation” refers to praising and uplifting, while “suppression” refers to downplaying and belittling. Suppression and elevation are techniques for character portrayal. To achieve praise for the described object, one first points out its shortcomings or deficiencies, making its strengths stand out. The opposite can also be done. There are methods of first elevating and then suppressing and first suppressing and then elevating (also known as wanting to elevate first suppress or wanting to suppress first elevate). Using the “suppression and elevation” method makes the plot variable, creating ups and downs, easily leading readers to have a sudden realization during the reading process, leaving a deeper impression. The “wanting to elevate first suppress” method is used in “From the Hundred Grass Garden to the Three Flavor Study,” where the author wants to write about catching birds in the Hundred Grass Garden in winter, highlighting that the Hundred Grass Garden is “my” paradise. Therefore, it first describes the winter of the Hundred Grass Garden as relatively dull, thus making the praised Hundred Grass Garden seem more interesting.
(9) Using objects to express intentions: The author cleverly embeds personal emotions and ideas into the description of objects, expressing inner feelings through the objects, which is implicit, philosophical, and suggestive, allowing readers to gain a unique aesthetic enjoyment. This means that the author’s personal “intention” is dependent on a specific “object.” The author’s personal “intention” is expressed more perfectly, fully, and powerfully through this specific “object.”
(10) Seeing the big through the small: Reflecting significant themes through ordinary and trivial matters, creating a sense of intimacy and emotional resonance, and possessing social significance. The “small” in seeing the big through the small is the focus of the description, which is both a condensation and development of writing creativity, as well as a unique arrangement by the writer. Because it is not just a general sense of “small,” but rather a product that embodies the great within the small, a highly refined pursuit of small victories over the large.
(11) Combining the virtual with the real: Combining abstract narration with concrete description, or combining descriptions of current real-life situations with memories and imagination.For example, “I fear that the boat on the double creek cannot carry so much sorrow.” “How much sorrow can you have, just like a river of spring water flowing eastward?” Both transform the intangible sorrow into tangible objects, highlighting the depth of the character’s sorrow.
(12) Borrowing scenery to express emotions: Borrowing scenery to express emotions, also known as embedding emotions in scenery, expresses the author’s emotions of joy or sorrow through the description of scenery. Its characteristic is that “scenery generates emotion, emotion generates scenery,” with emotions and scenery blending seamlessly. In writing, only scenery is described without directly expressing emotions, using scenery description to replace emotional expression, which is what Wang Guowei referred to as “all scenery language is emotional language.” In writing, emotions are expressed without directly writing about them, and scenery is painted without merely writing about scenery. Borrowing scenery to express emotions allows the article to be implicit, rich in meaning, and deeply moving.
Appendix 1: Differences between embellishment, highlighting, and contrast
1. Distinction in usage
1. Embellishment: Through (environment) scenery description to embellish the atmosphere. It is approached from a positive angle.
For example: In Du Fu’s “Ascending High,” the fifty-six-year-old old poet climbs the high platform outside the city of Kuizhou alone, and the autumn river scenery before him evokes his feelings of drifting in life, permeating his sadness of old age and illness. The first couplet “The wind is urgent, the sky is high, the ape cries sadly, the islet is clear, the sand is white, and the birds fly back” presents six close-up shots in succession, embellishing the characteristics of the desolate and sad autumn river scenery, setting a gloomy and sad tone for the entire poem.
2. Highlighting: Through (scenery) environment description to highlight emotions. It is approached from a side angle. (Only writing one side)
For example: In the last eight lines of the folk song “Mulberry on the Road”: “The traveler sees Luo Fu, lowers his burden and strokes his beard; the young man sees Luo Fu, takes off his hat and stands on tiptoe. The farmer forgets his farming, and the weeder forgets his weeding. When they return, they resent each other, but just sit and watch Luo Fu.” This describes the viewers’ expressions to highlight Luo Fu’s beauty, which is more artistically charming than direct description.
Often, embellishment and highlighting are combined, especially in poetry works that borrow scenery to express emotions, where embellishment is often used to describe scenery and create an artistic conception, and then the scenery (artistic conception) is used to highlight the characters’ emotions. Generally, we say that embellishing the atmosphere and highlighting emotions. For example, in Liu Yong’s “Rain Ling Bell,” the opening lines “The cold cicadas are mournful, facing the long pavilion at dusk, the sudden rain has just stopped” describe the environment of farewell, pointing out that the season of parting is the desolate and cold autumn, the location is the long pavilion outside Bianjing, and the specific time is the cold dusk after the rain. The author uses rich details to create a desolate atmosphere, highlighting the author’s inner feelings of parting and sorrow.
3. Highlighting: Divided into positive and negative highlighting. (Writing both sides, but for the purpose of highlighting one side)
For example: “The endless falling leaves rustle down, the Yangtze River rolls on endlessly” (Du Fu’s “Ascending High”) uses the desolate autumn scenery to highlight the poet’s feelings of drifting. The famous line from Wang Ji of the Southern Dynasty, “The cicadas are noisy, the forest is quieter; the birds sing, the mountains are more secluded” brilliantly uses the noise of cicadas and the singing of birds as a contrast to express the serene and pleasant atmosphere in the deep mountains and dense forests.
4. Contrast: The two opposing sides are compared to draw another conclusion.
For example, Mei Yaochen’s “Potter”: “The clay is exhausted in front of the door, and there is no tile on the roof. Ten fingers do not touch the mud, and the scales live in the mansion.” The entire poem uses the strong contrast between the potter and the rich family to deeply reveal the extreme irrationality of the feudal social system, expressing the poet’s deep sympathy for the laboring people.
Summary:
Embellishment and highlighting, are both aimed at making the described object more vivid and prominent, but their focus is different: the former approaches from a positive angle, while the latter approaches from a side angle.
Highlighting and contrasting, “highlighting” expresses the desired object through other things, so using one thing to imply another is called highlighting. This is different from “contrasting,” because “contrasting” writes both things. “Contrasting” uses similar, related things or opposing, different things as a foil to highlight the main object. “Contrasting” is divided into positive and negative highlighting.
Contrast and highlighting, Contrast is the comparison of two opposing or similar things to express a certain thought or artistic conception, with no distinction between primary and secondary; while highlighting uses secondary things as a foil to highlight a main thing, with a clear distinction between the two. (Contrast is often used in discussions, while highlighting is often used in descriptions.)
2. Category distinction
Embellishment, highlighting, and contrasting belong to writing techniques, while contrast belongs to both writing techniques and rhetorical techniques.
Appendix 2: Differences between foreshadowing and embellishment
1. From the perspective of purpose and function: Embellishment is highlighting. Although the author is working on secondary characters or events, the focus is on the main characters or events. Foreshadowing is “preparing hints or suggestions for characters or events that will appear in the work, seeking correspondence between the front and back.” It is often used in conjunction with “echoing,” known as foreshadowing in the front and echoing in the back.
2. From the perspective of form: To achieve the purpose of highlighting, embellishment often uses a lot of ink on the supporting parts, fearing that readers will not see it, so embellishment can be said to be “explicit”; while foreshadowing, generally speaking, values the “foreshadowing” aspect, which is usually more concealed. The so-called foreshadowing means that it is hidden. Therefore, foreshadowing is “implicit.” A clever foreshadowing, before seeing the “echoing,” seems like a “casual remark.”
3. From the perspective of writing style: Embellishment often uses more ink, which can be said to be rich in color (of course, its degree is not as much as that of the main characters or events); while foreshadowing usually only requires one or two strokes, just enough to make a point, otherwise it loses the meaning of “foreshadowing.”
In analyzing narrative works, one often encounters foreshadowing and embellishment. How to distinguish between foreshadowing and embellishment?
Foreshadowing, is a commonly used technique in writing. It can be understood as the previous part of the article laying the groundwork for the later part, or as the previous text hinting at the next text. Its advantage is that it provides implicit information, making the article’s structure tight and compact, preventing readers from feeling abrupt or doubtful when they read the subsequent content.
Embellishment is a technique that creates conditions for the main characters to appear or the main events to occur by emphasizing descriptions and rendering, serving as a supporting role. (1) The characteristics of embellishment: It is the process of accumulating and brewing for the main plot. (2) The function of embellishment: Embellishment is the foundation of the main plot, increasing the tension of the plot, creating suspense, and making the plot reasonable. (3) The principle of embellishment: It should be natural and reasonable, leading without revealing. (4) Types of embellishment:
① Divided by the direction of plot development, there is positive and negative embellishment. Positive embellishment is when the direction of embellishment is completely consistent with the direction of plot development, also known as positive embellishment. Negative embellishment is when the direction of embellishment is completely opposite to the direction of plot development, unexpected, also known as negative embellishment.
② Divided by the technique of embellishment, there are foreshadowing embellishment, suspense embellishment (also known as padding), and descriptive embellishment (using descriptive methods to render atmosphere, create momentum).
For example, the beating of Baoyu is foreshadowing embellishment, while the prelude of “Dream of the Red Chamber” is suspense embellishment.
When using foreshadowing, one should pay attention to:a. If there is foreshadowing, there must be an echo. If you mentioned a gun at the beginning, then in the second or third paragraph, you must mention the gunshot; if there is no foreshadowing and no echo, it is a flaw, and if there is only foreshadowing and no echo, it is also a flaw.b. Foreshadowing should be clever, avoiding being deliberate or obvious. Foreshadowing should generally be done in a way that others cannot easily detect, making it seem natural.c. Foreshadowing should have an echo, and the front and back should not be too close. If the foreshadowing is too close to the echo, it will make the article seem rigid and read dull.
Appendix 3: Differences between association and imagination
What is association? Let’s first look at a story from “The Sayings of the World”: The famous politician Xie An of the Eastern Jin Dynasty once had lunch with his family, and outside the window, snow was falling. Such heavy snow is rare in the south, and the children were all staring outside. Xie An took the opportunity to ask, “What does this floating snow look like?” His nephew Xie Lang said, “It looks like salt falling from the sky.” His niece Xie Daoyun said, “It is not as good as the willow catkins blown by the wind.” Here, Xie Lang compares the falling snowflakes to grains of salt, while Xie Daoyun compares them to willow catkins. Both are associations they made upon seeing the snowflakes.
This is association. Association refers to the mental activity of recalling or thinking of another related thing based on observation of a current thing.
So, which association is better, Xie Lang’s or Xie Daoyun’s? I believe many students have noticed that the heavy salt grains, apart from their shape and color being similar to snowflakes, have no other similarities, making Xie Lang’s association quite ordinary. In contrast, “the willow catkins blown by the wind” vividly depicts the gentle and beautiful swirling of snowflakes, making Xie Daoyun’s association indeed profound and unique.
Therefore, everyone has associations, but the depth, breadth, intensity, and levels vary greatly. The differences in people’s sensitivity to life determine this.
The contemporary famous writer Qin Mu once said: “The composition of association is, in a sense, like a circuit; with a circuit, electricity can flow. If knowledge is lacking, the circuit cannot be smooth.” This points out another key point of association: the accumulation of knowledge.
What is imagination? Let’s look at an example:
I envision my future like this: in a bay far from the hustle and bustle, I can have a small house that can withstand the sea breeze, with just a bed, a table, and a stool, and when I get tired of writing, I can find a bottle that someone sent from across the sea, containing just enough food to keep me from starving. When I feel too old, I quietly come to the beach at dusk, silently put the words I wrote here into the bottle, and send them to an unknown friend far away. Then, I gently lie down, quietly waiting for the late tide to take me away, leaving no trace… (Cheng Shiqing, “Confessions of a Twenty-Year-Old”)
In the above text, the author imagines a beautiful ending for his life.
Imagination is the psychological process of reconstructing and recombining past experiences into new images based on the perception of objective things. Imagination is the most precious quality of human creativity. The richer and more active the imagination, the fewer limitations it has, the deeper the understanding of life, the stronger the sensory experience, the richer the aesthetic experience, and the greater the creativity. Writing requires creative thinking, and the core of creative thinking is imagination. Not only does imaginative writing require imagination, but other types of writing also need the addition of imagination.
Many students’ compositions merely list grand and empty plots, only using vocabulary that expresses abstract things, lacking vivid and distinct images, rich and concrete details, resulting in dry content and a lack of depth in the article, making the language lack vitality. The reason for this is often that everyone has not fully expanded their imagination during observation and writing. Gorky said, “Imagination and speculation can fill in the missing links in the chain of facts.” Fully utilizing imagination in writing helps to expand writing ideas, allowing us to “see” more broadly and deeply, making ordinary things shine and making ordinary images thought-provoking, enriching the emotional and expressive power of the article.
Appreciation:
“Drinking Alone Under the Moon” by Li Bai
A pot of wine among the flowers, drinking alone without a companion.
I raise my cup to invite the bright moon, and my shadow forms three people.
The moon does not understand drinking, and the shadow merely follows me.
For a while, I accompany the moon and shadow; I must enjoy myself while spring lasts.
I sing, and the moon lingers; I dance, and my shadow becomes chaotic.
When sober, we share joy; when drunk, we part ways.
Forever bound in a carefree journey, we meet far away in the Milky Way.
Drinking alone is a common thing, but the author uses unique imagination to express the loneliness in his heart through the “liveliness” of drinking with the moon.
Appendix 4: Differences between using objects to express intentions and borrowing scenery to express emotions
1. Using objects to express intentions: Expressing one’s aspirations and wishes through the description and narration of objects.
For example:
Plants: Plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum
Animals: Horse—self-improvement, unceasing struggle; swan—high aspirations
Objects: The sword—loyalty to the country, protecting the home
“The Lime Ode” by Yu Qian from the Ming Dynasty
Thousands of hammering and chiseling emerge from deep mountains, and fierce fire burns as if it were nothing.
I fear no sacrifice, wanting to leave a clear reputation in the world.
The poet uses objects to express intentions, praising lime to express his willingness to be loyal to the country and his determination to uphold high moral integrity.
2. Borrowing scenery to express emotions: Using scenery or objective things to express emotions is a technique where the poet expresses implicit feelings, so it can be joyful, sorrowful, or melancholic, but we would never consider this emotion as a thought.
(1) The cold cicadas are mournful, facing the long pavilion at dusk, the sudden rain has just stopped. In the capital, drinking without a mood, lingering in the place, the orchid boat is urging to depart. Holding hands, we look at each other with tearful eyes, and we are speechless, choked with emotion. Thinking of the past, thousands of miles of misty waves, the evening haze is heavy over the vast Chu sky. Since ancient times, the sentimental have been hurt by parting, especially in the cold and lonely autumn season! Where will I wake up tonight? On the willow bank, the morning breeze and the waning moon. This year, there should be good times and beautiful scenery, but even if there are a thousand kinds of feelings, who can I share them with?
(2) The playful butterflies dance at all times, and the free orioles sing everywhere. Du Fu’s “Walking Alone by the River in Search of Flowers” (borrowing scenery to express emotions)
The author expresses his love for the beautiful spring through the description of the butterflies dancing and the orioles singing freely.
3. Similarities between using objects to express intentions and borrowing scenery to express emotions:
Both are indirect expressions of emotions, different from directly expressing one’s thoughts. They use narration, description, and commentary to express emotions, making abstract feelings objective, concrete, and visual, making them easier to understand and accept.
4. Differences between using objects to express intentions and borrowing scenery to express emotions:
(1) Using objects to express intentions often relies on certain characteristics of an object; this “object” is not a “scene,” and praising objects is not writing about scenery. The “scene” in borrowing scenery to express emotions refers to natural scenery, not a specific object.
(2) The “intention” in using objects to express intentions can refer to feelings, aspirations, morals, hobbies, wishes, demands, etc., while the “emotion” in borrowing scenery to express emotions specifically refers to love, hatred, praise, joy, sadness, etc.
(3) Using objects to express intentions generally focuses on one object (writing about the characteristics and experiences of that object), while borrowing scenery to express emotions may involve multiple scenes.
