Embedded computers are ubiquitous in everyday devices, office supplies, cars, industry, healthcare, and agriculture. From calculators to phones, cameras, elevators, traffic lights, factory controllers, and nuclear power plant control systems, almost all modern devices contain physical embedded systems. What are they? How do they work? What applications do embedded computers have?
Embedded computers can be broadly defined as any computer that uses hardware and software to perform specific functions, in contrast to the general processing done by modern desktop computers and servers. The dedicated nature of these embedded systems allows them to take advantage of lightweight software or firmware foundations and onboard ASICs to minimize power consumption and hardware requirements.
Modern processors contain numerous integrated accelerators for encryption, data, and video graphics processing.
Almost all components of most embedded computers are placed on a single PCB or motherboard. Due to having fewer replaceable components, such as RAM, CPU, and storage, embedded boards look very different from traditional consumer motherboards. Typically, embedded boards lack socketed components, and most components are soldered directly onto the CPU.
1. Small size: Typically designed with a single high-density PCB to maximize space efficiency.
2. Lower power components: High-efficiency processors with lower TDP for passive or minimal cooling, eliminating fans and moving parts.
3. Minimal upgradability or expandability: Few socketed components limit upgradability and expandability beyond their initial design and functionality.
4. Low hardware cost: Expansion slots for soldered components are eliminated, and SoCs reduce overall costs and component complexity. Low-cost mass production is optimized for these embedded boards.
Embedded systems must be optimized for low power consumption, code complexity, size, weight, and cost. Many lack dedicated onboard user interfaces (mouse, keyboard, and screen), which are primarily controlled through remote management interfaces, secure shells, or even direct firmware updates.
CPU and microcontrollers (one or more): Containing transistors and arithmetic logic units (ALUs) packaged within a single chip—they are the brains of embedded systems. The processor and controller are responsible for executing operations of the main system and retrieving data from various levels of cache (L1, L2, L3) and system memory (RAM).
CPU cache (L1, L2, L3): Due to its optimization for speed, it occupies a significant portion of the die and uses a single-level cell architecture (SLC) to increase speed. This means each cell contains 1 bit of data, attributed to this data and the high transistor count of this high-speed memory. On the CPU, this cache is limited to a very small amount, where L1 cache is the fastest but limited to 32 KB, L2 1024KB, and L3 2-16MB. The speed of this cache and its proximity to the CPU is crucial for processor performance.
System memory (RAM): An order of magnitude slower than cache but many times faster than non-volatile storage (such as hard drives and solid-state NAND drives), and more resilient, system memory is used to store running applications for quick access and transfer to processor cache. This memory is written thousands of times per minute as applications move data around and perform complex operations, thus not suffering from cell degradation and limited write/erase cycles.
Non-volatile storage: Hard drives, SSDs, NAND, and other non-volatile storage technologies are the slowest but have the largest capacity in the system. Large system files and data files are stored here for normal system operation.
CMOS-RAM: This component is responsible for storing important system configurations and real-time information. Powered by a small button battery, it can turn off system power without losing its timing function and system wake-up capability.
I/O ports: Any connection from Ethernet RJ45 ports to 3.5mm audio jacks falls into this category. They allow the system to accept and process external inputs through standardized interfaces (such as USB and HDMI).
There are many examples of where embedded computers can be used, from small single-purpose devices like calculators to complex systems like automotive cruise control. They are now ubiquitous and unavoidable in our daily lives. Examples include calculators, digital cameras, automotive embedded systems (ABS brakes, car alarms, engine sensor systems), vending machines, elevators, copiers, printers, global positioning systems, networking devices (switches, modems, routers, access points), game consoles
Home appliances (air conditioning, microwaves, refrigerators).
Some embedded systems are designed to operate under more extreme conditions, such as industrial-grade systems that require wide operating temperatures, electrical isolation, vibration resistance, and more. Enterprise-grade systems demand computing capabilities, reliability, and redundancy for mission-critical services.
Machine vision: Includes all industrial and non-industrial applications where the combination of powerful hardware and trained software provides operational guidance for devices performing functions based on image sensing data capture and analysis.
Factory automation: Uses real-time or near-time computing technologies to control and monitor industrial processes, devices, and machines. Typically, any repetitive function is an ideal candidate for automation, allowing systems to run through clearly defined processes to minimize human interaction.
Digital signage: Uses digital content broadcasted through screens like LED panels, high-resolution displays, and projectors.
We can see that almost all electronic products in life rely on embedded systems. With reliable embedded low-cost designs, they are always on.
Most of the time, they are hidden behind panels and shiny exteriors, unseen by the naked eye, yet they power all modern technology and interconnected systems. The intelligent use and advancement of embedded smart devices will continue to enhance our capabilities and efficiency in life.
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